DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 

Water-supply Paper 375— A 



GROUND WATER FOR IRRIGATION 

IN THE 

SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 

BY 

KIRK BRYAN 



Prepared in cooperation with the 
Department of Engineering of the State of California 



Contributions to the hydrology of the United States, 1915 
(Pages 1-49) 

Issued April 17, 1915 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1915 

Monograph 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Directob 



Water- Supply Paper 375— A 



GROUND WATER FOR IRRIGATION 

IN THE 

SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 



BY 



KIEK BRYAN 



Prepared in cooperation with the 
Department of Engineering of the State of California 



Contributions to the hydrology of the United States, 1915 
(Pages 1-49) 

Issued April 17, 1915 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1915 



a of s, 

MAY S 1915 



Cs& 



C-* 









CONTENTS. 



Introduction 1 

Geography 4 

Water-bearing formations 7 

Pre-Tertiary rocks 7 

Tertiary sediments 8 

Tertiary lavas 8 

Andesite breccias and basalt 8 

Tuscan tuff 9 

Tuff beds of the west side 10 

Older alluvium 10 

Southeastern division 11 

Northeastern division 12 

Northwestern division 12 

Southwestern division 13 

Younger alluvium 14 

General character and distribution 14 

Local characteristics and water developments. 15 

Origin and movements of the ground water.-. 18 

The water table 18 

Losses of the ground water 19 

Alkali 19 

Fluctuations of the water table. 20 

Amount of ground water 21 

Ground- water development 26 

General considerations 26 

Well problems 5 26 

Dug wells 26 

Bored wells 27 

Drilled wells 28 

Casing 29 

Types of well screens 31 

Effectiveness of well screens in sand 33 

Effectiveness of well screens in gravel .• 34 

Pumping problems. 37 

General considerations 37 

Amounts of water 37 

Forms of pumps 38 

Size and cost of pumps 41 

Efficiency of pumps 42 

Installation of pumping plants 42 

Distributing systems 44 

Irrigation with well water 45 

in 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Plate I. Relief map of northern Calif ornia, with outlines of Sacramento Valley 4 
II. Outline map of Sacramento Valley, Cal., showing pumping areas 

and depth to water 18 

Figure 1. Section through Chico, Cal., showing probable position of Tuscan 

tuff 10 

2. Fluctuations of the water table in 24 wells in Colusa Basin, Cal 20 

3. Fluctuations of the water table at Davis, Cal 23 

4. Position of water table near Yuba City, Cal., September, 1913 24 

5. Diagram of L. F. Tony's well near College City, Cal 34 

6. Dimensions of enlargement of discharge and suction pipes 43 



NOTE. — The papers included in the annual volume "Contributions to the hydrology 
of the United States" are issued separately, with the final pagination, as soon as 
they are ready. The last paper will include a volume title-page, table of contents, 
and index for the use of those who may wish to bind the separate parts. A small 
edition of the bound volume will also be issued, but copies can not be supplied to 
those who have received all the parts. 



GROUND WATER FOR IRRIGATION IN THE SACRAMENTO 
VALLEY, CALIFORNIA. 



By Kirk Bryan. 



INTRODUCTION. 

No phase of the history of California is more striking and inter- 
esting than the economic and social changes which are now affecting 
the Sacramento Valley. These changes cover the whole field of 
human activity, and yet in a peculiar sense the control and use of 
water are the vital factors which differentiate the development of 
this valley from the industrial expansion that has been common to 
the whole country since the Civil War. Each step in the mastery of 
water adds impetus to the basic industry of agriculture and, through 
the ramifications of industry and trade, brings progressive changes 
to all parts of the social fabric. 

The control of rivers for navigation and flood protection, the drain- 
age of swamp lands, the harnessing of mountain streams for the pro- 
duction of electric power, and the use of both surface and underground 
water for irrigation and domestic purposes present problems which 
"involve in so complete and fascinating a way all of the phases of 
hydraulic engineering." 1 The solution of these problems is being 
accomplished with amazing rapidity, largely by private interests, 
working under wise laws and effective supervision and control by 
State and Federal bodies. 

The possibilities of the Sacramento Valley were early appreciated 
by the Spanish colonists of Calif ornia, but the vastness of the province, 
its distance from Mexico, and the intractability of the northern 
Indians prevented them from making settlements north of Sonoma. 
American immigrants, beginning with Gordon, Knight, Wolfskill, 
and Sutter, recognized the value of the country for raising cattle and 
established ranches on lands granted by the Mexican Government. 
The valley was the stronghold of the Americans during the conquest 
in 1845, and many of the settlers became rich in the mines in the 
years following the discovery of gold in 1848. The commercial pro- 
duction of wheat in this area was begun by Gen. John Sutter in 1843, 2 

1 Mendenhall, W. O, Preliminary report on the ground waters of San Joaquin Valley, Cal.: U. S. Geol. 
Survey Water-Supply Paper 222, p. 49, 1908. 

2 Bancroft, H. H., History of California, vol. 5, p. 228, and note, p. 187. 

1 



2 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

and until very recently the growing of wheat and barley by dry- 
farming methods has been the principal agricultural industry. 

The use of water for irrigation has developed slowly and has encoun- 
tered a curious apathy, in contrast to the enthusiasm for reclamation 
by drainage. Because of a mild climate, a concentrated winter 
rainfall, and a shallow water table, many field crops and deep-rooted 
plants thrive without irrigation. Water is not a necessity; it only 
makes possible larger yields, the cultivation of crops with a higher 
return to the acre, and the cultivation of certain lands otherwise 
chiefly valuable for grazing. Such advantages have had little weight 
with owners of large holdings to whom the original cost of the .land 
was small. However, the crowding in of home seekers from the East, 
the diminishing profits of grain farming, and the increase in land 
values have combined to bring about the subdivision and sale of 
many large parcels of land. To the purchasers of such tracts the 
advantages of irrigation appeal more strongly. 

The price of land is based on its anticipated value under irrigation 
and not on its value for dry farming. When subdivided, it is sold 
for two to three times its value for grain raising, and for many tracts 
the purchaser must provide the means of irrigation. The colonizing 
of subdivided lands has become a business and is in the main con- 
ducted by reputable firms. A large block of land is purchased and 
surveyed into small tracts with provision for roads and perhaps for 
a town site. Irrigation works may be provided or a demonstration 
well and pumping plant installed with the intention that the settlers 
should install private plants, using wells for obtaining water. Pur- 
chasers are attracted by agents and advertising. Charges of fraud 
have been made and doubtless in some cases are justified, but wide 
publicity and cooperation among real estate men are eliminating false 
and exaggerated statements. Intending settlers should exercise cau- 
tion, view the property, compare it with similar offers, and be sure 
that^ they are getting good land well situated for a fair price. The 
value of farm land rests primarily on the quality of the soil and the 
value of the crops which it will produce, but the price of similar land 
varies with proximity to market, towns, and schools, with danger of 
floods and assessments for reclamation, with the kind of irrigation 
feasible, and with many other local factors. The formation of an 
intelligent judgment will be assisted by a study of reports of the 
United States Bureau of Soils, covering large parts of the valley, 
which are given in the following list: 

Lapham, M. H., Root, A. S., and Mackie, W. W., Soil survey of the Sacramento 
area, California: U. S. Dept. Agr. Field Operations Bur. Soils, 1904, pp. 1049-1087, 
1 map. 

Lapham, M. EL, Sweet, A. T., Strahorn, A. T., and Holmes, L. C, Soil survey of 
the Colusa area, California: Idem, 1907, pp. 927-972, 2 maps. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 3 

Mann, C. W., Warner, J. F., Westover, H. L., and Ferguson, J. E., Soil survey of 
the Woodland area, California: Idem, 1909, pp. 1635-1689, 2 maps. 

Strahorn, A. T., Mackie, W. W., Holmes, L. C, Westover, H. L., and Van Duyne, 
Cornelius, Soil survey of the Marysville area, California: Idem, 1909, pp. 1689-1740, 
1 map. 

Holmes, L. C, and Eckmann, E. C, Soil survey of the Red Bluff area, California: 
Idem, 1910, pp. 1601-1656, 1 map. 

The following reports of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture treat of various phases of irrigation and the growing of crops : 

Adams, Frank, Irrigation resources of California and their utilization: Office Exper. 
Sta. Bull. 254, 1913. 

Fortier, Samuel, Irrigation in the Sacramento Valley, California: Office Exper. Sta. 
Bull. 207, 1909. 

Fortier, Samuel, and Beckett, S. H., Evaporation from irrigated soils: Office Exper. 
Sta. Bull. 248, 1912. 

Beckett, S. H., Progress report of cooperative irrigation experiments at California 
University farm, Davis, Cal., 1909-1912: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 10, October 30, 1913. 

Fortier, Samuel, Irrigation of alfalfa: Farmers' Bull. 373, 1909. 

In the report of the Conservation Commission of California on the 
irrigation resources of the State, Adams * gives the figures which have 
been combined in the following table: , 

Summary of agricultural, irrigated, and irrigable lands of California. 





Agricultural land. 


Irrigated land, 1912. 


Estimated area that will ulti- 
mately be irrigated. 




Acres. 


Per cent 
of the 
total for 
Califor- 
nia. 


Acres. 


Per cent 
of agri- 
cultural 
land. 


Acres. 


Per cent 
of agri- 
cultural 
land. 


Ratio to 
area irri- 
gated in 
1912. 


Southern California 


6,070,325 
9,665,000 

6,201,000 


27 
44 

28 


745,486 
1,959,355 

483,700 


12.2 
20.2 

7.8 


1,949,600 
4,300,000 

3,510,000 


32 
44 

56.6 


2* 
2 


Northern California (in- 
cluding Sacra mento 
Valley) 


7 






All California 


21,936,325 


100 


3,188,541 


14.5 


9,759,600 


44 


3 


Sacramento Valley south 
of Red Bluff, excluding 
Stony Creek area 


3,305,000 


15 


117, 792 


3.5 


2,500,000 


75 


21 



Note. — Irrigation figures are taken from the irrigation census of 1910, revised to 1912, and estimates of 
future irrigation are based on the most reliable data available. 

It will be seen from the table that the Sacramento Valley contains 
15 per cent of the agricultural land of the State. Only 3.5 per cent 
of the area was irrigated in 1912, but it is estimated that at least 75 
per cent, or 21 times the present irrigated area, will ultimately be 
brought under water. These large possibilities have led to a rapid 
increase in the number of irrigation projects and an influx of men 
and capital from other parts of California to derive profit from the 

1 Adams, Frank, Irrigation resources of California: California Conservation Comm. Rept. 1912, pp. 90-327. 



4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915, 

development of the land, their expectation being that the permanent 
future population will come from the Eastern States or from Europe. 

Sacramento River and its tributaries have a mean annual discharge 
more than sufficient to irrigate all the valley lands and maintain navi- 
gation. 1 However, gravity systems of irrigation from the rivers and 
streams involve heavy expenditures for diversion, storage, and the 
construction of laterals; legal difficulties arise; and adjustment to 
other water problems — those especially of navigation and flood con- 
trol — is necessary. Such troubles are perhaps more apparent than 
real and will disappear when the common interests of the individual 
landowners and of the various communities are better recognized. 
In the meantime many enterprising men, unwilling or unable to wait 
for larger projects, have installed small private plants, pumping 
water from the streams and wells. Whole communities now depend 
on wells for their irrigation water. 

The large irrigable area and the extensive use of ground water for 
domestic purposes, public supplies, and irrigation led the United 
States Geological Survey, in cooperation with the California State 
Department of Engineering, to undertake an investigation of which 
this report is a preliminary statement. Field work was begun by 
the writer in 1 9 1 2 and continued in 1 9 1 3 and 1914. Beginning in No- 
vember, 1914, J. W. Muller, of the United States Geological Survey, 
spent two months in collecting statistics of pumping in Sacramento 
County. A report treating of the whole subject of ground water in 
Sacramento Valley will be published later. 

The kindness and hospitality of people of the valley were a con- 
stant assistance in the progress of the investigation. The writer is 
also indebted to many local engineers and development companies 
for information of great value, but detailed acknowledgment to indi- 
viduals can not be made in this preliminary report. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

The Sacramento Valley is a broad and fertile plain lying between 
the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range and forming the northern 
part of the Great Valley of California, of which the San Joaquin Val- 
ley is the southern lobe. (See PL I.) The Sacramento Valley is 150 
miles long and 40 miles wide, extending from latitude 38° 15' to 
40° 15' N. It lies in the same latitude as the region from the mouth 
of the Potomac to Trenton, N. J. 

The Sierra Nevada, on the east, rises gradually in low foothills, 
and a rich agricultural section, the "foothill belt," intervenes between 
the valley and the pine-clad summits of the range. To the west the 
ragged ridges of the Coast Range, covered with a sparse forest of oak 
and manzanita, shut off the cold winds and fogs of the Pacific. 

1 Adams, Frank, op. cit., pp. 167 et seq. 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 375 PLATE 



7T71 




RELIEF MAP OF NORTHERN CALIFORNIA WITH OUTLINES OF SACRAMENTO VALLEY. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 5 

The valley has been accurately mapped by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey on a scale of 1 : 31,680, with a 5-foot contour interval. 
The maps are published in named sheets including 7J minutes of 
latitude and longitude, or an area about 8 miles long and 7 miles 
wide. On these maps each 160-acre tract is shown as an inch square, 
and elevations can be estimated within 1 foot. A single map of the 
whole valley, on a scale of 1 : 250,000, or about 4 miles to the inch, 
with a 25-foot contour interval, has also been published by the 
Survey. 

The inequalities of the valley plain are slight and are hardly per- 
ceptible at first glance, the 300-foot contour line inclosing practically 
the whole valley area. Yet the minor elevations are of great signifi- 
cance in respect to the origin of the sediments and of importance in 
the life of the people. From Ked Bluff to Hamilton Sacramento 
River runs in a flood plain from 1 to 5 miles wide, bounded by low 
bluffs or fairly steep plains. From Hamilton southward the river is 
bordered by flood basins, from which it is separated by a natural 
levee of choice farming land deposited by past floods. In high 
water, which occurs in the winter and spring, the river overflows, and 
depositing the coarse sediments on the natural levee, fills the basins 
at each side with water that spills from basin to basin and reaches 
the river farther south. The small tributary streams, especially 
those of the west side, discharge into the basins, depositing the 
coarser sediments in the plains and the finer in the basins. Only the 
larger streams reach the Sacramento directly, and these cross the 
basins confined between banks of their own building, similar to those 
of the main river. 

Thus the valley includes (1) sloping plains, (2) shallow basins of 
heavy soils, (3) low ridges of loam and silt soils along the rivers, and 
( 4) higher plains of older alluvium laid down during a previous cycle 
of deposition and now raised above the valley floor in low hills and 
rolling plains. These higher plains are much less productive of dry- 
farming crops than the near-by recent soils deposited by the same 
streams, but their slight elevation gives them immunity from frost, 
and their soils respond readily under irrigation. 

Sacramento and Feather rivers are bordered by a thick tangle of 
cottonwood and willow jungle, heavily covered with the vine of the 
wild grape. The plains are grass covered, and near the streams are 
dotted with scattered oaks, which give the valley that "parklike ap- 
pearance" mentioned by all the early writers. The basin Jands were 
formerly covered by aquatic plants, the tule (Scarpus lacustris) being 
the most prominent. The tule has been largely burned off to im- 
prove the summer grazing, but the name clings as the popular desig- 
nation of the overflow basins or "troughs." 
75944°— 15 2 



6 



CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 



Towering above the flat lands are the Marysville Buttes, a land- 
mark visible during clear weather from all parts of the valley. The 
buttes are a group of hills about 10 miles in diameter, with sharp 
central peaks, two of which, South Butte and North Butte, rise, 
respectively, 2,132 and 1,863 feet above sea level. The central area 
consists of andesite and rhyolite, crystalline rocks which are the 
solidified core of an ancient volcano. 1 Around the core are upturned 
and baked shales and sandstones of lone and Tejon age. The outer 
hills are composed of angular fragments of andesite and beds of vol- 
canic ash, thrown out from the center during eruption. Narrow val- 
leys filled with alluvium extend into the hills, but, unlike many of the 
tributaries of the main valley, these valleys have no terraces along 
their sides. 

Sacramento River is affected by the tide as far north as the city of 
Sacramento, and is navigable in all seasons to Colusa. From Colusa 
to Red Bluff boats make regular trips only in the winter. The delta 
of the river begins south of Sacramento. This region is known as the 
island country, for here both the Sacramento and the San Joaquin 
break up into a number of winding channels or sloughs which surround 
irregular tracts of fertile land. Each river has a main channel south 
of the Montezuma Hills, to Suisun Bay, but before reaching the bay 
their waters unite through a number of sloughs, in which the direction 
of flow varies with the respective stages of the two rivers. Many of 
the islands surrounded by these channels are below sea le vel and are 
protected from floods by artificial levees. 

As in other parts of California, the rainfall is concentrated in the 
five winter months. There is a gradual increase in amount up the 
valley, from 19 inches annually at Sacramento to 25 inches at Red 
Bluff. Slight increases are also noticeable from the center of the 
valley to the sides. The following table shows the average rainfall 
at three places in the valley near the north and south ends and the 
center: 

Average rainfall in the Sacramento Valley, in inches. 





Length 




























Station. 


of 
record 

(years). 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


An- 
nual. 


Sacramento . 
Marysville . . 
Red Bluff... 


65 
43 
36 


0.02 
Tr. 
.02 


0.01 
.01 
.02 


0.23 
.32 
.64 


0.80 
1.12 

1.33 


2.04 
2.23 
3.03 


3.90 
3.49 

4.48 


3.95 
3.98 
4.66 


2.81 
2.99 
3.53 


2.92 

2.85 
3.67 


1.57 
1.48 
1.81 


0.79 

.84 

1.23 


0.15 
.25 
.49 


19.19 
19.56 
24.91 



The winters are moderate, temperatures as low as 18° above zero 
being recorded but twice in 64 years at Sacramento. These con- 
ditions are distinctly favorable to all kinds of agriculture and par- 

i Lindgren, Waldemar, and Turner, H. W., U. S. Geol. Survey Gool. Atlas, Marysville folio (No. 17), 
1895. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 7 

ticularly to the commercial production of grapes, figs, olives, citrus 
and deciduous fruits, and nuts. 

The character of the climate is accurately reflected in the life of 
the people. With the beginning of the rains in the fall the grass 
springs up and cattle and sheep are brought down from the moun- 
tains, where they have passed the summer. The overflowed tule 
lands in the center of the valley are grazed only in the long, dry 
summer, and with the coming of the rains the cattle are moved to 
the higher plains. The grain farmer sows his wheat and barley in 
the fall and harvests them in the spring; this is called winter sowing. 
Or he may plow his land after the rains in the spring and let the 
plowed land lie fallow through the summer, to be planted before the 
rains in the fall; this is known as summer fallowing. Because the 
ground is too dry and hard to plow after the grain ripens, land that 
bears a crop can not be summer fallowed the same year, so that 
summer-fallow land has a crop only every other year. The con- 
centration of the rainfall, with a shallow water table, enables all deep- 
rooted plants to survive the summer, while the mild temperatures 
are favorable for delicate plants. On these conditions rests the 
orchard industry of the valley. All the deciduous fruits bear heavy 
crops and are rarely damaged by frost. The more delicate fruits 
and nuts — apricots, almonds, walnuts, olives, lemons, and oranges — 
grow well and are a commercial success in favored localities. The 
extensive grape industry is also dependent on the climate; the less 
hardy varieties of the vine may be grown, and the long dry season 
is favorable to the concentration of sugar in the grapes and to the 
drying of the grapes to make raisins. 

Many districts in the valley are famous for certain special crops. 
This does not mean that these crops can not be grown with profit 
elsewhere, but only that they have been found to be especially well 
adapted to the particular soil, climate, and water of those districts. 
There is a tendency to magnify the differences between localities 
through prejudice and self-interest, but real differences exist that are 
sufficient to affect the quality of many crops. Without taking any 
natural advantage into consideration, it is obvious that, in growing 
an export crop, association with other growers of the same crop is 
beneficial, especially to the inexperienced, through standardization 
of methods of culture and marketing. 

WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 

PRE-TERTIARY ROCKS. 

The Sacramento Valley is a basin whose sides and bottom are prob- 
ably formed of the same granitic, schistose, and slaty rocks, of pre- 
Cretaceous age, that compose the greater part of the Sierra Nevada 



8 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OP UNITED STATES, 1915. 

and the core of the Coast Ranges. In this basin lie sandstones and 
shales of Cretaceous age, which are thin on the east side but thicker 
on the west. 1 These formations carry little water and may be con- 
sidered as an impervious floor on which the Tertiary and Quaternary 
water-bearing formations have been deposited. 

The geologic history of the valley is long and complex, as is shown 
by the evidence derived from the rocks of bordering regions. An 
arm of the sea existed approximately in the position of the valley 
intermittently for a long time, but the depression that began in the 
Tertiary period, modified by Quaternary movements, gave to the 
valley its present shape. 

TERTIARY SEDIMENTS. 

During the Tertiary period two formations were deposited in this 
basin — the Tejon, which belongs to the Eocene series, and the lone, 
which was originally described as Miocene but is now held by Dick- 
erson 2 to be Eocene. Neither of these is important as a water- 
bearing formation. 

The lone has not been recognized in wells of the valley, but deep 
wells near Lincoln obtain salty water from fine sand below a thick 
blue clay, or shale, which is either the lone or the underlying Cre- 
taceous. 

TERTIARY LAVAS. 

In Tertiary time lavas, breccias, and tuffs were extruded from vol- 
canoes in the Sierra Nevada and extended down the slopes of the 
mountains and into the valley. 

ANDESITE BRECCIAS AND BASALT. 

The lava flows which cap the gold-bearing gravels in the ancient 
stream channels of the Sierra and which diverted the rivers into 
their present channels covered the lone formation on the edges of the 
valley and now extend as a bed of lava grading into tuff beneath the 
more recent sediments in the valley, as is shown by the deeper wells 
of the east side. In some wells good water is obtained in sands 
and gravels that apparently occur at this horizon. 

Basalt of similar history and origin caps the lone formation in 
South Table Mountain, near Oroville, and in a group of hills farther 
north. The basalt is not known as a water bearer in the valley, but 
rain water which enters its jointed and porous outcrops seeps out 
at its contact with the lone to form several perennial springs in the 
mountain and the basalt-capped hills near by. 

i Diller, J. S., Tertiary revolution in the topography of the Pacific coast: U. S. Geol. Survey Fourteenth 
Ann. Rept, pt. 2, p. 415, 1894. Lindgren, Waldemar, U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Sacramento folio 
(No. 5), 1894. 

2 Dickerson, R. E., The lone formation of the Sierra Nevada foothills, a local facies of the upper Tejon- 
Eocene: Science, new ser., vol. 40, pp. 67-70, 1914. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 9 

TUSCAN TUFF. 

From Durham northward to Red Bluff and beyond the Sierra 
foothills are formed by beds of andesite lava, breccias, and volcanic 
ash aggregating 1,000 to 1,500 feet in thickness. These beds, which 
are .known as the Tuscan tuff, consist of materials that were extruded 
from volcanoes in the vicinity of Lassen Peak. 1 

The formation is considered by Diller to be of Pliocene age, but 
small eruptions of similar material have continued through Qua- 
ternary time to the present day. That a long time was needed for the 
accumulation of these beds is shown by the presence of interbedded 
gravels whose smooth, waterworn pebbles of andesite and basalt 
were deposited by large graded streams that flowed over the volcanic 
plain and eroded its surface between successive volcanic eruptions. 
The main mass of the volcanic material to which the name Tuscan is 
given, was uplifted by a monoclinai fold (Chico monocline) extending 
along the-border of the Sacramento Valley from Chico northwestward 
to Iron Canyon. This movement, which involves also the older 
alluvium, lifted the Tuscan tuff from 500 to 900 feet above the valley. 
In the plain thus formed a number of deep and desolate gorges have 
been cut by perennial streams, of which Antelope, Mill, Deer, Chico, 
and Butte creeks are the largest. 

From the foothills of the Sierra the Tuscan tuff extends beneath 
the alluvium of the valley with diminished thickness and increasing 
fineness of grain. It is exposed about 12 miles west of Sacramento 
River along Thomas, Elder, and Redbank creeks as a pinkish tuff 
about 50 feet thick overlying the lone formation. Little is known of 
the water-bearing properties of the Tuscan formation on the west side, 
but on the east side near Chico there are seven wells which penetrate 
the formation. The lowest yield is 600 gallons a minute. In the 
center of the valley shallow wells are likely to furnish sufficient water, 
but on the higher plains from Durham northward to Red Bluff, 
where the alluvium is thin and cemented, wells should be sunk to the 
Tuscan tuff if large supplies are needed. The dip of the formation 
is 10°-15° W. at the edge of the valley but flattens to horizontal in 
the center. Thus the depth to the formation within 2 or 3 miles 
from the outcrop east of Chico increases to 500 feet, but farther out 
in the valley it seems to he at no greater depth. These relations 
are brought out in figure 1. 

^ The depth of the formation beneath the valley has been estimated 
by interpretation of the well logs. The wells of the Chico Water Co. 
and the Morehead wells (see fig. 1) are certainly in the lavas at the 
depths indicated, but the Parrott well has a log which is not quite so 

i Diller, J. S., Tertiary revolution in the topography of the Pacific coast: U. S. Geol. Survey Fourteenth 
Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 412, 1894. / 



10 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

easily interpreted. The "lava ash" reported at 377 feet and again 
at 399 feet may be only a fine silt and not a*tuff bed of the Tuscan 
formation. 

The inclined position of the Tuscan tuff is favorable for artesian 
water, but the absence of an impervious cover prevents the accu- 
mulation of the necessary head. Certain beds within the formation 
seem to be dry, and in many of the wells water stands slightly below 
the level of water in near-by shallow wells. In the wells of Stanford 
University east of Durham, however, the water stands 3.5 feet above 
the water table in the alluvium. 

Drilling in the Tuscan tuff is difficult because the rock is hard 
and deep wells are necessary. The expense of drilling will be justified 
only where large supplies are needed or for stock and domestic water 




Younger and older alluvium 
399 ' ^Tuscan tuff (?) 






Figure 1.— Section through Chieo, Cal., showing probable position of Tuscan tuff. 

on the stony plains east of Vina, where shallow wells go dry in 
summer. 

TUFF BEDS OF THE WEST SIDE. 

Evidence of volcanic activity in the Coast Range is abundant. 
Ash beds and tuffs below the older alluvium and fine tuffs in the 
older alluvium of the west side indicate that in part at least this 
volcanism in the Coast Range was coincident with the Pliocene and 
Pleistocene eruptions of the Sierra Nevada. 

OLDER ALLUVIUM. 

The great volcanic eruptions of the Pliocene epoch were followed 
by uplift and erosion around the borders of the Sacramento Valley, 
but probably by continued deposition in the center. Deposition over 
the whole valley area then began and continued into Pleistocene 
time. The deposits thus laid down are known only where they have 
been exposed by later uplift on the borders of the valley, and when 
encountered in wells they can rarely be distinguished from the over- 
lying younger alluvium. At the edge of the valley they rest on the 
andesite lava, the Tuscan tuff, and the lone formation, in some places 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 11 

in apparent conformity, but in many places with evidences of exten- 
sive stream cutting before their deposition, In some localities the 
Tertiary beds have been removed and the alluvium lies directly on 
the granites and schists. 

The older alluvium is of Pleistocene and possibly late Pliocene age 
and is differentiated from the younger alluvium only by the fact that 
it is now uplifted and dissected. It is composed of clay, sand, and 
gravel, and varies much in appearance and composition. It is char- 
acteristically red and is always redder than the neighboring younger 
alluvium, but the shade changes from place to place and samples from 
different areas have no superficial resemblance. This is due to the 
fact that the alluvium was deposited by streams varying in volume 
and permanence and draining areas of different types of rock. Only 
the deposits of tributary streams are exposed; the contemporary 
deposits of Sacramento River are now deeply buried. Four large 
divisions of the younger alluvium can be made and mapped — the 
southeastern, the northeastern, the southwestern, and the northwestern. 

SOUTHEASTERN DIVISION. 

The southeastern division of the older alluvium extends from Oro- 
vule southward to Lodi and comprises the deposits of Feather, Yuba, 
Bear, American, Cosumnes, and Mokelumne rivers. In Pleistocene 
time these strong streams trenched great canyons in the Sierra Nevada 
and discharged the eroded materials into the valley. The Sierra 
throughout this region is composed largely of granite and the alluvium 
is everywhere arkosic; that is, it contains undecomposed particles of 
feldspar and mica, with quartz, the constituent materials of this rock. 
The clay is red or brownish red, is tough and tenacious, and contains 
particles of iron-stained feldspar and muscovite mica. The sands are 
quartzose and carry a little feldspar and much mica, both muscovite 
and biotite. The gravels are usually well-rounded pebbles of the 
harder rocks. Quartz and quartzite pebbles predominate, but peb- 
bles of granite, diabase, andesite, and schist also occur. In size they 
range from cobblestones near the mountains to pebbles an inch or 
less in diameter near the center of the valley. The gravels are in 
most places cemented with calcium carbonate, and "hardpan" is 
common throughout the formation. Hardpan composed of clay or 
sand cemented with lime and hydrous silicates of iron is commonly 
found near the surface. It is covered with a few inches to several 
feet of red soil, which has a superficial coat of pebbles due apparently 
to concentration by rain wash. Such soil and hardpan are charac- 
teristic of the higher plains. Irrigation and special treatment of the 
soil are necessary for full agricultural development of the rolling plains 
and hills of this formation. 



12 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

Wells in this formation should be drilled, as it is too hard for suc- 
cessful auger work except in certain favored places. Water is usually 
obtained from fine sand, as the gravels of the formation are com- 
monly so cemented as to furnish but little water. Because the clays 
stand without casing the sand is usually pumped out and water is 
drawn from the cavities thus formed. Wells so constructed have a 
large seepage area and many of them, particularly in the lower part 
of the plains, are very successful. 

NORTHEASTERN DIVISION. 

The older alluvium of the northeastern division extends in irregular 
patches from Oroville to Chico and is more conspicuous from Chico 
along the east-side plains to Red Bluff. It is of the same age and was 
formed by the same processes as the older alluvium farther south, but 
as the comparatively short streams which furnished the sediments 
had their courses over the great blanket of Tertiary lavas that here 
mantle the Sierra the deposits are composed almost wholly of volcanic 
materials. The older alluvium of this part of the valley is thin, 
being nowhere over 60 feet thick where uplifted along the Chico mono- 
cline, and is composed chiefly of rather large, waterworn gravels, 
cemented by lime, with smaller amounts of brown clay and sand. 
The color of the formation as a whole is a deep brown, of slightly 
redder hue than the brown of recent deposits. Only small patches 
occur between Oroville and Chico, but north of Chico the older allu- 
vium is .the predominant surface formation on the east side of the 
valley. The surface is a treeless plain, covered with large and small 
stones, the finer material having been washed away by the rain. A 
thick grass springs up between the stones after the fall rains, and at 
such times the plains are used for grazing. Dug wells have been the 
common type in this area and have not been very successful. Drilled 
wells are more likely to develop water, but large supplies can not be 
expected from the older alluvium in this division. 

NORTHWESTERN DIVISION. 

The northwestern division of the older alluvium extends from Stony 
Creek to Red Bluff. It forms a prominent bluff that overlooks the 
river and, with the prevailing red color, gives the name to Red Bluff 
and to several other local features. The clays, sands, and gravels of 
the formation were deposited by the Sacramento and its western tribu- 
taries. The gravels are in places 2 to 3 inches in diameter and are 
composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks from the Klamath 
Mountains. The formation is thin where it rests on the Tuscan tuff 
about 12 miles west of the river and is over 400 feet thick near the 
river. The upper part laps over the east-side alluvium in the vicinity 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 13 

of Iron Canyon, and this- part of the formation is therefore younger. 
The Sacramento was evidently gradually crowded over to the east 
during early Pleistocene time by the mass of material brought down 
by western tributaries. With movement along the Chico monocline 
the Sierra Nevada was uplifted and also the older alluvium. Con- 
temporaneous with the Chico monocline were two cross folds at right 
angles to it. The uplift was so gradual that the Sacramento was 
able to cut down through the alluvium from both sides of the valley 
to the underlying Tuscan tuff, whose hard rocks now form Iron 
Canyon. 

The alluvium of the northwestern division is not highly cemented, 
though it is necessary to use a drill in sinking wells in it. In a few 
places the gravels are dirty and cemented, but as a rule they are clean 
and are good water bearers. Excellent wells have been obtained in 
the first 300 feet in the vicinity of Red Bluff, and wells drilled recently 
near Corning are promising. 

SOUTHWESTERN DIVISION. 

In the southwestern division the older alluvium is composed of 
gray, brown, and yellow clay and fine sand, with local tuffaceous clays 
and ash beds. A reddish gravelly clay from a few inches to 25 feet 
thick occurs at the top of the formation and serves to distinguish it 
from the surrounding yellow and brown clays and loams of the 
younger alluvium. The formation rests on the eroded edges of 
Cretaceous and perhaps Tertiary rocks of the Coast Range, which 
have been beveled by erosion to a rather smooth plain. This plain 
extends from the alluvium up toward the mountains in successively 
higher ridges for a mile or more and is probably similar in origin and 
age to the plain that bevels the Cretaceous rocks in the northern part 
of the valley. 1 The formation was uplifted in Pleistocene time by 
movement of two kinds. From Stony Creek to Williams the older 
alluvium was tilted as the mountains went up and the valley down, so 
that it now projects out of the modern alluvium in a thin and irregular 
fringe, nowhere over a mile wide. From Williams to Cache Creek the 
older alluvium forms a plateau from 200 to 500 feet above sea level, 
uplifted by movement due to faulting along a northwest-southeast 
line marked by the present front of the plateau. The minimum move- 
ment was at least 400 feet on the north and about 200 feet at Cache 
Creek. The same fault turns to the south at Cache Creek and extends, 
as shown by a line of low red hills, to Putah Creek. The plateau 
which in the southern part is known as the Hungry Hollow Hills, is 
thoroughly dissected by short streams at right angles to the fault. 

i Diller, J. S., op. cit., p. 405, 
75944°— 15 3 



14 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

Another fault, en echelon with this one, starts at Esparto and, skirting 
the mountains, brings up the alluvium along the foothills to a point 
opposite Allendale, where the fault disappears. Farther south, 
around Elmira, the older alluvium comes close to the surface of the 
plains, which are only veneered with modern wash. It reappears in 
the Montezuma Hills, a well-dissected plateau of alluvium about 200 
feet high on the west with a gentle slope to the northeast. These hills 
form the terminus of the plains and confine the waters of the Sacra- 
mento and San Joaquin in a narrow throat against the Mount Diablo 
Range, with Suisun Bay on the west and the island country on the 
east. 

YOUNGER ALLUVIUM. 
GENERAL CHARACTER AND DISTRIBUTION. 

The deposition of the older alluvium was followed by uplift in both 
the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range, which is regarded as part of 
the Pleistocene uplift of these ranges. The edges of the valley were 
bent up and the center gently bowed down. From Lodi to Oroville 
along the east side there was a gentle raising and tilting of the valley 
edge. The alluvium was lifted from 100 to 400 feet above the stream 
grades, causing each stream to cut a canyon of alluvium as it emerged 
into the valley. There were two pauses in the cutting of these can- 
yons, marked by well-defined terraces. From Chico north to Red 
Bluff the movement was a sharp monoclinal flexure, which formed the 
Chico monocline and raised the Tuscan tuff about 900 feet. The allu- 
vium, except where bent up in the fold, was raised between 50 and 
150 feet above stream grade. The shallow valleys which traverse the 
plain of older alluvium show one terrace very prominently and in most 
places two. 

On the west side from Red Bluff to Stony Creek each tributary 
valley which crosses the broad plains of the older alluvium shows ter- 
races, as a rule the typical two. A general uplift took place at the 
north end of the valley, and there was less central deepening, well 
records indicating that the younger alluvium is less than 150 feet deep 
in the river bottoms. From Stony Creek south to Williams there was 
a sharp downward flexing, and the modern alluvium lies close to the 
mountains. From Williams southeast to Cache Creek the Hungry 
Hollow fault raises the older alluvium in the little plateau whose south- 
ern part forms the Hungry Hollow Hills. The streams that cross the 
plateau at right angles to the fault line have two well-developed ter- 
races. Similarly Cache Creek shows two terraces where it crosses the 
fault and a similar set where it emerges from the mountains at Esparto, 

With the uplift just described Sacramento River and its tributaries 
began the deposition of the younger alluvium, the material being 
eroded from the older alluvium or brought down from the mountains. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 15 

The younger alluvium covers the central area of the valley and lies 
in narrow strips along the tributaries of the Sacramento. It varies 
in character, like older alluvium, but the deposits of the main river 
which it includes are exposed in addition to those of the side streams. 
The formation is probably nowhere in the valley more than 300 or 400 
feet thick. Every high water adds to it, and this fact is so well under- 
stood that some farmers deliberately turn flood water on their land 
for the benefit derived from the " sediment." 

The younger alluvium is the most productive water bearer of the 
valley formations. It is uncemented over most of the area and con- 
sists largely of sands and gravels. Many house wells draw water from 
the clays, but except under unusual conditions large supplies are 
derived only from the sand or gravel. Successful development con- 
sists in the search for sufficient sand and gravel and in the use of 
adequate well methods. 

These beds were deposited by the present streams, and the coarsest 
and cleanest gravels were formed by the larger streams. But as 
these streams in building up the valley deposits have shifted their 
courses many times, their gravels are found over a wide area. The 
gravels are not continuous beds but irregular lenses and strings of 
material separated by sand and clay. Consequently the logs of adja- 
cent wells are often very unlike. Where a stream is confined in a 
valley of older alluvium it is comparatively easy to sink a line of -wells 
across the valley and determine the place where the maximum amount 
of gravel has been deposited. Where a stream debouches from the 
mountains directly upon the plain its deposits occupy a triangular 
area with the apex near the mountains. The gravels, representing 
old stream courses, extend in irregular wavy lines from the apex 
to the base. The largest amount of gravel is then at the mouth 
of the canyon, and the smallest near the mountains in the interstream 
areas. 

Along the larger rivers wells draw from either sand or gravel and 
the gravels encountered are of the same size as those in the river bed 
at that place. Thus the Sacramento has gravels 3 to 6 inches in 
diameter near Red Bluff, 2 to 3 inches at Hamilton, 1 to 2 inches at 
Butte City, and about 1 inch at Colusa. From Colusa southward 
gravels are rare, but the sands are in many places coarse and gravelly, 
and even as far south as Rio Vista pebbles half an inch in diameter are 
found in the sands. Feather River carries gravels 6 to 8 inches in 
diameter at Oroville, but at Marysville most of its load is sand. 

LOCAL CHARACTERISTICS AND WATER DEVELOPMENTS. 

Ground water has been used for irrigation of the bottom lands of 
the Sacramento near Tehama, Butte City, and Colusa. The light, 
porous soils of the river bottoms require large heads of water in order 



16 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES; 1915. 

to cover the land, and consequently large plants are needed. Many 
owners having riparian rights pump from the river with lifts about 
the same as those pumping from wells. The decision whether any 
particular tract of river bottom land should be irrigated from the 
river or from wells rests simply on the cost of wells relative to the 
cost of access to the river, the damage from floods, and losses in the 
ditches passing through sandy land from the river *to the fields. 
Wells can be made cheaply by the ordinary methods as far south as 
Colusa, but south of this point the gravels are finer and sand screens 
more efficient than those customarily used should be installed. 

In Solano County from the Montezuma Hills northward the size 
and amount of the gravels increase, and in the neighborhood of Dixon 
beds of rather coarse gravel are common. These gravels are mixed 
with sand, but include pebbles from 1 to 3 inches in diameter and are 
similar to those in the present bed of Putah Creek. This stream is 
prevented from swinging to the north by the low red hills extending 
south from the Hungry Hollow Hills and seems to have deposited 
most of its material south of its present channel. A number of dry 
sloughs or old channels extend southeastward from Putah Creek and 
are indicated by the many changes in the course of the creek in past 
time. Well conditions seem to be especially favorable in the triangle 
between Dixon Ridge, Putah Creek, and Yolo Basin. 

In Yolo County, between Putah and Cache creeks, the younger 
alluvium is divided into east and west portions by a strip of older 
alluvium thrown up by the Hungry Hollow fault. The low red hills 
thus formed act as a partial dam to ground waters originating near 
Cache Creek. In consequence ground water is within 6 feet of the 
surface over a number of areas west of Plainfield and east of Citrona. 
Owing to the shallowness of the water the land is alkaline, but it 
affords admirable sites for pumping plants on account of the low lifts. 
House wells indicate that good gravel will be found. Pumping of 
ground water here would tend to drain and reclaim the alkaline land. 

Few wells have been put down between Davis and Woodland east 
of the fault, but these few indicate the presence of good gravels, and 
the supply of water should be adequate except in the immediate 
vicinity of the red hills. 

Large plants are characteristic of the district around Woodland 
and across Cache Creek on Knights Landing Ridge, where coarse, clean 
gravels are found at moderate depths. These gravels were deposited 
by Cache Creek and are widely distributed on both sides of the stream. 
The amount of water obtained is dependent on the thickness of the 
gravel bed and the kind of well screen used. For the irrigation of 
any particular tract prospect wells should be sunk, and when the 
thickness and coarseness of the gravels are learned suitable screens 
should be inserted, as described under "Well problems." East of 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 17 

Woodland, at the border of Yolo Basin, flowing wells are not uncom- 
mon, but the flows are small and of no commercial importance. 

From the Cache Creek delta to the fan of Stony Creek the Recent 
alluvium of the plains was deposited by comparatively small streams. 
The gravels are small in amount, not very coarse, and locally mixed 
with clay. The yield of wells is smaller than near Woodland, but 
with the use of better well methods adequate supplies can be ob- 
tained. West of Arbuckle the plains are steep and the water table 
deeper than in any other part of the younger alluvium. The primary 
lift of 60 to 75 feet should not, however, prevent the profitable use 
of ground water on orchard crops. Considerable pumping is done 
on the delta of Cortina Creek at Williams and along Willow Creek at 
Willows. 

North of Willows to Stony Creek the younger alluvium consists of 
the deposits of Stony Creek. These coarse materials are good water 
bearers and wells can be cheaply developed over the area. At the 
south edge of the Stony Creek fan, near Germantown and Willows, 
artesian water has been found at a depth of about 800 feet. The 
flows vary from a few gallons to 200 gallons a minute, and while the 
water is of value for stock and domestic use it has not yet proved 
more economical than pumped water. 

North of Stony Creek the younger alluvium lies in little valleys 
and swales in the rolling plains of the older alluvium. Shallow wells 
obtain water for irrigation, especially around Corning and near 
Thomas Creek. The gravels are in places full of clay, and partly for 
this reason and partly because of poor methods the yield of wells is 
small, from 50 to 200 gallons a minute. The tight soils, however, 
make the use of small quantities of water possible, especially in the 
irrigation of orchards. 

On the east side of the valley the younger alluvium is inconsider- 
able in amount over the plains north of Chico. Southwest of the 
town, on the Chico Creek fan, water is obtained in shallow wells in 
the alluvium, but near the mountains the alluvium is very thin and 
not a good water bearer. Through this region, however, large sup- 
plies may be obtained from the underlying Tuscan tuff. (See p. 9.) 

In the region south of Chico the east-side plains are largely formed 
of younger alluvium as far south as Marys ville. In the upper part of 
Butte Basin gravels are derived from the old courses of Butte and 
Dry creeks. Although little development has taken place here it 
is thought that prospect wells will locate gravels and sands in the 
first 200 to 300 feet, and that from these beds good wells can be 
obtained. In the Biggs-Gridley district the younger alluvium has 
been deposited by Feather River, and coarse, clean gravels are found 
in wells. 



18 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

In the eastern part of Sutter Basin a large pumping district has 
sprung up around and south of Yuba City. Water is found in sand, 
usually in sufficient amount within the first 200 feet. The clays are 
tough and form a good roof, so that the sand may be pumped out 
and wells obtained very cheaply. Farther west toward the trough 
and south near Marcuse and Chandler the water is likely to be poorer 
in quality. Most of this water, however, is usable for irrigation. 

East of Feather River the younger alluvium fringes the river and 
extends into the valleys of the minor streams. The gravels are very 
coarse as far south as Honcut Creek, and considerable development is 
taking place. From the Honcut to Yuba River the gravels are finer 
and many wells draw water from sand. The water table is shallow 
and the consequent low lifts should induce pumping. 

In the plains south of the Yuba separation of the younger and older 
alluvium must be rather arbitrary. Both formations are water 
bearers. The whole plains area from the Yuba south to American 
River is susceptible of development. In the lower plains water will 
be obtained largely from the younger alluvium, and in the higher 
plains from the older alluvium at depths less than 300 feet. The 
deep wells of the Natomas Consolidated of California in Reclamation 
District 1001 have shown the occurrence of large supplies of water 
between 500 and 800 feet. Near the foothills deep drilling has not 
been successful. The valley formations are thinner, and the lone 
formation and probably the Chico also are likely to furnish salty 
water. 

South of American River thelower plains broaden out. In theseplains 
it is difficult to distinguish between the two kinds of alluvium. In a 
general way the redder, higher knolls are older alluvium. The 
higher plains are formed of older alluvium capping Tertiary beds. In 
the lower plains and the flood plains of American, Cosumnes, and 
Mokelumne rivers good wells are obtained very cheaply. In general 
the water comes from sand beds between cemented gravels and clays 
which stand well and form a good roof. A very large amount of 
development has taken place, and all the lower plains may be con- 
sidered proved territory for ground water. Wells with yields large 
enough for orchard irrigation can probably be obtained in the 
higher plains, but near the mountains the alluvium is thin and 
prospects are not so good. 

ORIGIN AND MOVEMENTS OF THE GROUND WATER. 

THE WATER TABLE. 

Throughout the valley the alluvium at a depth of a few feet is 
saturated with water. Tins water is known as the ground water and 
fills the interstices of the ground to an indefinite distance downward. 
In general, the earth's crust becomes more compact in depth, and 



U. 8. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 375 PLATE II 



Areas of alluvium in 
which the water table 
is less than 25 feet 
below the surface 



Areas of alluvium in 
which the water table 
is more than 25 feet 
below the surface 




OUTLINE MAP OF SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL., SHOWING PUMPING AREAS AND 
DEPTH TO WATER. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 19 

in every region there is a depth at which the pores of the rocks are 
so small that they yield little or no water. The top of this saturated 
zone is called the water table. It is the level at which water stands 
in shallow wells. 

The Sacramento Valley is remarkable for the large area in which 
the water table stands close to the surface. During the summers of 
1912 and 1913 — two dry years — less than 20 per cent of the valley 
had a depth to water of more than 25 feet. Water was more than 25 
feet deep over the plains area on both sides of the river north of 
Hamilton; in a fringe of interstream areas of older alluvium, or "red 
lands," on both sides of the valley; in the steep fan west of Arbuckle; 
and in the apricot district around Winters. These areas are out- 
lined on the map (PL II) . «• In the rest of the valley water stood at 
depths between 6 and 25 feet. 

The water table slopes from the sides of the valley toward the center 
and from the north to the south. The grade is slightly less than 
that of the land surface, so that water is shallower in the basin areas 
than toward the hills. In the northern part of the valley the ground 
water slopes toward Sacramento River, and except during flood times 
escapes to and feeds the river. From Hamilton southward the 
water table slopes to the basins from the plains and also from the 
river down the slope of the natural levees to the basins. The grade 
in the basins from north to south is very slight, so that the ground 
water is practically stagnant in these areas. Thus the fluctuations 
of the river affect only the wells near the river bank. 

LOSSES OP THE GROUND WATER. 

It is a matter of common observation that water in wells rises in 
the winter and falls in the summer. This means that a large amount 
of water is taken into the ground in winter, which is lost again in 
summer. This water is supplied by local rainfall, percolation from 
stream channels, and winter floods. Loss occurs by movement 
down the slope of the water table to seeps and sloughs in the basin 
lands, where the water evaporates. Evaporation also takes place 
from moist lands where the ground water stands less than 8 feet from 
the surface. With evaporation the dissolved salts are left in the 
ground and form "alkali" land. 

ALKALI. 

Although there are large areas in the valley with a shallow water 
table, favorable to evaporation and the accumulation of alkali, only 
comparatively small areas are unfitted for agriculture from this cause. 
This condition seems to. be due to the following reasons : 

1. The ground waters are of good quality. The east-side waters 
contain from 100 to 250 parts per million of dissolved substances, 



20 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, i9l5. 

mostly calcium and the bicarbonate radicle, and the west-side waters 
contain from 200 to 600 parts per million of dissolved substances, 
largely calcium and the bicarbonate and sulphate radicles. 

2. The water table is very flat over the basins, and movements of 
the ground water are sluggish. Water is supplied more freely at the 
bases of the slopes, and for this reason the principal concentration of 
alkali occurs at the edges of the basins. This is particularly the case 
on the west side, where alkaline patches and areas of salt grass 
border the basin along its western edge. The distribution of alkaline 
land on the west side of the valley may be obtained from the soil 
reports of the Colusa and Woodland areas. 1 

3. The heavy winter rains leach out much of the salts concen- 
trated at the surface. Similarly flood waters wash out the salts in 
overflowed lands, and on the edges of the plains the same waters 
deposit mud or sediment, which often covers up the alkali. 

FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER TABLE. 

The fluctuations of the water table are large. The rise begins in 
September and is gradual until the coming of the rains, when the rate 



<t- 2 



-c 3 



Feb. 

1910 
Groun 


Mar. 
i surfs 


Apr. 
ce 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Jan. 

1911 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


/^ 


\ P 






















r-y 


\ 






V 


























— 





























































































Figure 2.— Fluctuations of the water table in 24 wells in Colusa Basin, Cal. 

increases until March. From March the water falls until, in the 
later part of June, it reaches the summer level, which is nearly 
constant except when affected by pumping. The characteristic 
fluctuations in the basin lands are shown in figure 2, which gives the 
average of the depths to water observed weekly in 24 wells in Colusa 
Basin. The curve is very similar to those given by Lee 2 for the 
moist lands in the Owens Valley. The summer low is, however, more 
drawn out and the rise and fall before and after the winter rains 
are much sharper. The rise of ground water in September before the 

1 Lapham, M. H., and others, Soil survey of the Colusa area, Cal.: U. S. Dept. Agr. Field Operations Bur. 
Soils, 1907, pp. 927-972. Mann, C. W., and others, Soil survey of the Woodland area, Cal.: Idem, 1909, 
pp. 1635-1689. 

2 Lee, C. H., An intensive study of the water resources of a part of Owens Valley, Cal.: U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-Supply Paper 294, pp. 80-81, 1912. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 21 

winter rains seems to be due to a decrease in evaporation with cooler 
weather. The decreased evaporation is largely effective in the border 
lands. A rise of ground water in the basin areas then takes place 
which with lessened draft produces a general rise in all the wells of 
the valley. 

In the plains area, where the depth to water is 15 to 25 feet in 
summer, the winter rise brings the water within 5 to 15 feet of the 
surface. 

AMOUNT OF GROUND WATER. 

The total quantity of ground water in the valley is very great. 
The sands and gravels contain from 20 to 40 per cent of water, the 
clays perhaps more. Because the pore spaces of the sand and gravel 
are much larger than those of the clay the rate of flow through these 
materials is much greater and they become for practical purposes the 
water bearers. The sand and gravels are distributed through the 
alluvium, which thickens from less than 50 feet at the edge of the 
valley to 500 feet or more in the center. 

The rapidity of the winter rise and its sensitiveness to rainfall 
afford the best indication of the quantity of water available for 
pumping, for the available ground water in any district is the average 
amount which, falling as rain, percolates into the soil or, being 
collected in the mountain valleys, is carried to the plains by torren- 
tial streams and there sinks into the ground, less the amount which 
emerges through seepage and evaporation before or during the 
pumping season. It is very difficult to estimate this amount. In 
the neighborhood of Dixon, where pumping for irrigation had been 
practiced for 12 years and on a large scale for the last 5 years, water 
was lower in the wells in the summer of 1912 than it had been for 12 
years. The water stood about 5 feet below the normal August level, 
according to the observations of many irrigators, necessitating the 
deepening of pumping pits and the lowering of pumps. This sinking 
of the water table was not due entirely to pumping but in part to the 
excess of natural loss over gain because of the small rainfall of the 
previous two winters. A lowering of the water level in wells 
amounting probably to an average of 2 or 3 feet, had been commonly 
noticed by well owners throughout the valley in the summer of 1912, 
and it may be inferred that the additional lowering of 2 or 3 feet near 
Dixon in the same season was due to the withdrawal made by the 
hundred plants in the immediate vicinity of the town. 

Changes in water level have a large bearing on the operation of 
pumping plants. The machinery is likely to be flooded in the spring, 
but in August, when water is most needed, the suction of the pumps 
may be so great as to decrease the supply seriously. This problem 
is discussed more fully under the heading "Pumping problems" 
75944°— 15 4 



22 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1&15. 

(p. 37). The plant of T. T. Eibe, near Dixon, will serve as an exam- 
ple. The well is 97 feet deep and is cased to the bottom with gal- 
vanized-iron casing 10 inches in diameter. It is at one side of an 
8 by 8 foot cement pit 8 feet deep and is equipped with a 5-inch 
horizontal centrifugal pump connected by belt in an inclined belt 
way to a 12-horsepower gasoline engine. When this plant was 
visited in October, 1912, the water stood 7 feet below the cement 
floor. Mr. Eibe says that it has never before been lower than 2 feet 
below the floor and that in the winter of 1907 it stood 2 feet from the 
top of the pit. Even in June, 1912, there was 4 feet of water in 
the pit, and in order to do any pumping it was necessary to replace 
the belt with a chain drive. In this place, then, there was in the dry 
year of 1912 a variation in level of 11 feet in less than five months. 
In Wet years the amount of fluctuation is probably not so great 
because summer lowering from natural causes is about the same each 
year, but with increasing withdrawals of water by pumping the 
volume of dry ground will be increased and consequently also the 
absorption and storage of water during wet winters. 

The winters of 1911 and 1912 were dry, less than half the normal 
rainfall being recorded at most of the valley stations. In conse- 
quence the winter rise of ground water was smaller than usual, and in 
the summer of 1913 the water table was exceptionally low. With 
the heavy rains of the succeeding winter, however, recovery was 
general, even in regions of heavy pumping. 

These conditions are brought out in figure 3, which is a record of 
water levels in the "Irrigation investigations" well at the California 
University Farm at Davis. The upper curve in the figure shows the 
depth to the water level when the well is not in use, and the lower 
curve shows the depth when the pump is operated. The observa- 
tions were made on the first of each month by S. H. Beckett, irriga- 
tion engineer, who generously furnished the record. The monthly 
rainfall at Davis, obtained from the United States Weather Bureau, 
is plotted for comparison. 

On heavy pumping the water in a well lowers, and this lowering is 
called the " drawdown." The water is also lowered in the ground for 
some distance around the well. Wells near by are often affected 
and, if shallow, may be rendered useless. This depression of the 
water table or "cone of influence" is very large and has a flat angle 
when the supply of water is scanty, but is small and has a steep angle 
when the water is plentiful. If the ground water were simply a pool 
in the pore spaces of the ground this cone of influence would grad- 
ually extend and become flatter until the whole body of water would 
be permanently lowered, but the ground water is constantly in motion, 
receiving its increment from the rains and moving toward the center 
of the valley, where it is lost by seepage and evaporation. Its level 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 



23 



rises and falls according to the amount that is passing by. "When 
the water table at any point is depressed by pumping, movement takes 



S3 £ 

o z 


DEC 
JAN. 
FEB. 


a. < 
< 2 


z 


= 


a 

< 


u 

CO 


o z 




o 

UJ 

o 


z 
< 




a 

Lu 






14 






































16 










































































18 
19 


















































































































Def 


th tow 


ater« 


hen no 


pum 


)ing 




























/ 










\ 




















/ 




22 
23 
24 


































/ 

/ 














































































26 
27 
28 
29 


















































































































Dc 


pth to 


water 


when p 


umpin 


! 




























«" 






*• 




\ 

\ 
\ 


























30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 






>* 
* 














\ 






































\ 
\ 








































\ 
\ 








/ 


































\ 






/ 
/ 




































\ 

\ 


s 
s 


-- 


' 






















c 
























































































-° & 












































% C 

o o 
























































































a-M 








1 
































1 




1 




1 






1 


■ 


No ra 


in July 
1 


ltoC 


ct31 



















Figure 3.— Rainfall and fluctuations of the -water table at Davis, Cal., Oct. 1, 1912, to Feb. 1, 1914. 
Data furnished by S. H. Beckett. 

place toward that point from all directions; but the largest amount 
of water will come from the place where the flow originates, for on 
that side the head is greater. 



24 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES,, 1915. 

Figure 4 shows the position of the water table near Yuba City in 
September, 1913. The general slope indicated by contours from 
Feather River west and south to Sutter Basin is normal to the locality, 
though the water table is from 2 to 3 feet lower than usual because of 
the dry season. The principal pumping was done along Gilsizer 
Slough, and here the water table was lowered a maximum of about 5 

feet in addition to 
the general lower- 
ing, as is shown by 
the backward swing 
of the contour lines. 
The approximate 
position of the water 
table if there had 
been no pumping is 
indicated by broken 
lines. 

Similar lowering of 
the normal ground- 
water level was 
found along Knights 
Landing Ridge 
northeast of Yolo. 
The depth to water 
in J. R. Fisher'swells 
was 24 feet in July, 
1900. 1 These wells 
were pumped with a 
6 - inch centrifugal 
pump operated by 
a 17-horsepower 
steam engine from 
1898 to 1900, when 
the pumping plant 
was removed. On 
September 29, 1912, 
the water stood 23.8 feet below the top of the pump pit. Mr. Fisher 
stated that early in the spring of 1913 the water was only 21 feet below 
the surface and that in normal winters the water rises within 10 to 
15 feet of the surface. On June 27, 1913, the depth to water was 
39 feet. In the spring of 1913 a 3-inch centrifugal pump operated 
by a 10-horsepower motor was installed and 10 acres of alfalfa was 




4 Miles 



***** 



Levee 



Irrigated tracts 

Figure 4. — Position of water table near Yuba City, Cal., September, 
1913. Unbroken lines show contours of water table (feet above sea 
ievel); broken lines indicate probable position of contours of water 
table if there had been no pumping. 



'Chandler, A. E., Water storage on Cache Creek, Cal.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 45, 
p. 25, 1901. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 25 

irrigated. These wells are a quarter of a mile south of the St. Louis 
pumping plant of the Sacramento Valley Sugar Co., which was oper- 
ated for about 70 days during the season of 1913 at a capacity of 
7,000 gallons a minute. On a temporary shutdown of the St. Louis 
plant Mr. Fisher observed the water rise 22 inches in his wells. 

When the pumping plant of A. W. Dick & Sons, 2 miles north of 
the Fisher plant, was installed, January 1, 1913, the pump, set in a pit 
15 feet deep, primed at a vacuum of 2.5 inches of mercury, which is 
equivalent to a depth of water of 2.8 feet below the pump; in July it 
primed at a vacuum of 12 inches of mercury, indicating a lowering of 
the water level to 13.5 feet below the pump, or a net lowering of 10.7 
feet. In the house well of B. Weiss, 1| miles west of the Dick plant 
and 1£ miles from the nearest pumping plant, the water level was 
12.9 feet below the top of the casing on October 1, 1912, and 15.5 feet 
on July 1, 1913, a lowering of 3.6 feet. Lowering was not evident 
near the river, as is shown by the fact that in C. A. Piper's well, near 
Knights Landing, the water level was 17.7 feet below the top of the 
casing on September 7, 1912, and 17.6 feet on July 1, 1913. 

These and other observations show that pumping produces only a 
local depression of the water table and that the winter rise in normal 
years is rapid and effective. General lowering of the ground water 
may be expected in the summer, and it will be large during periods 
of deficient rainfall. Heavy pumping may be expected to create 
still further depression, which, if the whole valley were irrigated by 
pumping, would increase the general lowering. However, because 
pumping increases the volume of dry soil capable of receiving and 
retaining water, it thereby increases the amount of water that is 
stored underground in the succeeding rainy season. 1 Wells in or 
near land that will in the future be irrigated from ditches will have 
a decreased lift after irrigation is begun, because of the rise of ground 
water that accompanies the ordinary wasteful methods of applying 
water. Along the edges of the basins, within reclamation districts 
and in other localities where the ground water stands very near the 
surface, lowering of the water table by pumping will be beneficial. 

The economic limit for pumping will be reached when the ground- 
water level is so depressed at the end of two or three dry seasons 
that the cost of the increased lift absorbs the profit from the crop. 
In view of the high lifts common in southern California, where water 
is being pumped for irrigating alfalfa with a lift of 100 feet and for 
irrigating citrus fruits with a lift of 200 to 400 feet, 2 it would seem 
that a very considerable increase in the number of plants can be made 
in the present pumping districts of the Sacramento Valley. 

i Smith, G. E. P., Arizona Univ. Agr. Exper. Sta. Bull. 64, p. 189, 1910. 

"Tait.C. E., The use of underground water for irrigation at Pomona, Cal.: TJ. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. 
Sta. Bull. 236, p. 96, 1911. 



26 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES; 1915. 

GROUND-WATER DEVELOPMENT. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The development of a pumping project has three main phases — 
prospecting to locate the best available water-bearing beds, sinking 
wells, and installing pumping machinery. Although it is possible 
from geologic evidence to determine for any part of the valley the 
general distribution and character of the water-bearing beds, the 
precise location of these beds and their value as sources of water 
can be determined only by sinking wells. Test wells should therefore 
be put down to determine the best place to locate permanent wells, 
although the advantage of having the plant at the highest point 
of the tract to be irrigated may cause the acceptance of poorer gravels 
at this point. The cost of this preliminary work is small in comparison 
to the cost of developing water in a poor location that is arbitrarily 
chosen, or in comparison to the losses that result from an inadequate 
supply. 

WELL PROBLEMS. 

DUG WELLS. 

The early settlers of the valley depended altogether on dug wells, 
which penetrated just to or slightly below the water level. As 
sources of water for domestic uses most of these wells have been 
abandoned, because of the difficulty of keeping them in a sanitary 
condition. 

In the development of supplies for irrigation, dug wells are suitable 
for obtaining the largest possible amount of water from a single 
water-bearing bed close to the surface. In the valleys in the older 
alluvium and along the foothills there are places where the principal 
water is in such a bed. In such places dug wells are valuable and 
sometimes the only suitable method of obtaining ground water, but 
in most parts of the valley bored or drilled wells are more satisfactory. 

The two most serious difficulties connected with the sinking of 
dug wells are casing the sides of the hole and disposing of the water 
after the water level is reached, so that digging may proceed. 

In most localities where such wells are valuable, as in the neigh- 
borhood of Chico, on the high plains of the east side, and in the 
plateau of older alluvium on the west side, the ground is sufficiently 
tight to stand without support until a considerable hole has been 
dug. In these localities a timber or concrete Hning can be built 
in sections as digging progresses. The clays encountered on the 
east-side plains are so tough that they have stood in the walls of 
certain dug wells for 30 years without curbing. Pick marks made 
in digging are still visible in the walls of some of these old wells. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY; CAL. 27 

Where the material is soft a square or annular shoe of timber 
protected with sheet iron should be constructed and a masonry or 
concrete wall built upon it. As the earth is dug out at the center 
the curb settles by its own weight and the wall may be successively 
added thereto. Care should be exercised to keep the curb plumb, 
to prevent jamming. 

When the water table is reached in digging a well means must be 
provided to pump out the water before the well can be dug deeper. 
A pump with a flexible suction hose and foot valve should be obtained, 
and, if possible, this pump should have a larger capacity than one 
that is to be installed permanently. When the pump used in sinking 
is the one the well is expected to supply it should be overspeeded to 
increase its capacity above normal. Where electric power is available 
the pump and motor may be lowered on stages set inside the curbing. 
A direct-connected outfit will need only one stage, but will take up 
more room than a belted outfit and there is no way to increase 
the speed of the pump. With gasoline or steam power the engine 
should be set near the edge of the pit so that the belt pulley will 
project over the opening and give a vertical drive, or a jack shaft 
and idlers should be used. As the pump is lowered increasing lengths 
of belt must be inserted. 

The yield of dug wells decreases rapidly with a lowering of the water 
table in dry seasons, and consequently they should be sunk in August, 
when the water is lowest, and should be carried as far below the 
water table as practicable. 

BORED WELLS. 

The commonest method of sinking wells is with the use of augers 
similar to those used for making postholes. This rather primitive 
method has been abandoned in most parts of the United States, 1 but 
in the Sacramento Valley it is competing successfully with the more 
modern methods. Wells have been sunk to depths of 350 feet with 
augers, but at this depth the torsion of the rods and the time required 
to insert and remove them are so great as to make the work difficult 
and slow. Cemented beds or large bowlders are difficult or impos- 
sible to handle. The best success is attained in localities where only 
clay, sand, and gravel are encountered and in wells from 30 to 150 
feet deep. 

The rig consists of a three-legged derrick with a windlass for raising 
and lowering the tools by a rope that passes through a pulley at the 
top of the derrick. The tools consist of augers, reamers, sand pumps, 

1 Bowman, Isaiah, Well-drilling methods: TJ. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 257, pp. 70-78, 1911. 
This paper contains an adequate discussion of the various methods of sinking wells and should be in the 
hands of every well driller and every person intending to make any large well development. Copies may 
be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C, for 15 cents. 



28 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

a worm screw, and a chisel-bit drill. The augers vary with every 
outfit, and are usually made by the local blacksmith. They are 
from 4 to 8 feet long and from 4 to 12 inches in diameter. Hollow 
steel rods are used to turn the augers, to which they are connected 
either by a screw coupling or a square pin and socket. 

In the simpler outfits boring is done by hand. One of the rods, 
which is kept always above ground, has a series of holes in which a 
horizontal drive bar is inserted. The men seize this bar and turn the 
auger by walking around the well. Sand and gravel are removed by 
the sand pump, as in ordinary cable drilling. 

Within the last few years a number of power auger rigs have come 
into the field. There are two types — one in which a rotary plate is 
mounted on the ground, as in hydraulic rigs, and another with an 
overhead rotary. In either type a gasoline engine is mounted on the 
truck, which carries also a mast, or derrick, and a hoisting drum. 
The use of power has brought about minor modifications in the tools, 
but the results accomplished are about the same. The power rigs 
have reduced the cost of wells by reducing the labor and time required 
for sinking, but no reduction in price has resulted, because a better 
grade of work in casing and finishing a well is now required of the 
contractors. 

Prices vary from place to place, but in general well borers charge 
from $1 to $2 a foot for 10 or 12 inch wells not more than 150 feet 
deep when the well owner pays for the casing. For the greater depths 
or where unusual difficulties are expected $10 a day is the usual 
charge. 

DRILLED WELLS. 

Hydraulic methods have been but little used in putting down wells 
in the Sacramento Valley, though there is no good reason why this 
method should not be suitable for sinking deep wells throughout the 
central and western parts of the valley. 

Two types of percussion or churn drills are in use — the ordinary 
portable rigs of various manufactures and the California or "mud- 
scow" rig. The latter has many manifest advantages in unconsoli- 
dated deposits, and the double slip-joint or stovepipe casing which 
is used is advantageous where gravel is encountered. The ordinary 
portable rig is more adaptable to various conditions and can handle 
hard rock and cemented beds to better advantage. It has a large 
field of service in the east-side plains and in the areas underlaid by 
the Tuscan tuff. 

Prices are higher for drilled wells than for bored wells, and the 
driller expects to put down deeper wells and do work of a higher 
grade. A common contract price is $1.50 a foot for the first 100 feet 
and an increase of 50 cents a foot for each 50 feet thereafter. 



GROUND WATEfi IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 29 

CASING. 

The object in casing a well is to prevent the caving of the walls 
and to provide a straining surface to hold back loose material and 
admit water. In certain districts, notably in the vicinity of Florin, 
wells last a remarkably long time without casing, the stiff clays and 
hardpans and cemented sands of the alluvium standing without sup- 
port even when a well is heavily pumped. For permanent wells, 
particularly on the west side, casing is usually necessary. 

Oil well or screw casing is commonly used for deep wells made with 
drilling rigs. Screw casings have the advantage of strength to resist 
strains of all kinds and can usually be successfully removed. When 
made of wrought iron these casings are relatively resistant to rust. 
Double slip-joint or stovepipe casing is made of sheet iron riveted in 
tubes of two sizes. One size fits inside the other. In inserting the 
casing into a well the larger 2-foot length projects 1 foot beyond the 
smaller, and the joints are thus broken. The lengths are fastened 
together by denting with a sharp pick. This casing is used for both 
shallow and deep wells. Boring outfits ordinarily force the casing 
down with a lever; the drilling rigs are equipped with hydraulic 
jacks. 

The advantages of stovepipe casing have been summed up by 
Slichter 1 as follows, but many of the advantages which he mentions 
apply also to single sheet-iron casings: 

1. The absence of screw joints liable to break and give out. 

2. The flush outer surface of the casing without couplings to catch on bowlders or 
hang in clay. 

3. The elastic character of the casing, permitting it to adjust itself in direction and 
otherwise to dangerous stresses, to obstacles, etc. 

4. The absence of screen or perforation in any part of the casing when first put down, 
permitting the easy use of sand pump and the penetration of quicksand, etc., without 
loss of well. 

5. The cheapness of large-size casings because made of riveted sheet metal. 

6. The advantage of short sections, permitting use of hydraulic jacks in forcing 
casing into the ground. 

7. The ability to perforate the casing at any level at pleasure is a decided advantage 
over other construction. Deep wells with much screen may thus be heavily drawn 
upon with little loss of suction head. 

8. The character of the perforations made by the cutting knife are the best possible 
for the delivery of water and avoidance of clogging. The large side of the perforation 
is inward, so that the casing is not Likely to clog with silt and debris. 

9. The large size of casing possible in this system permits a well to be driven down 
in bowlder wash where a common well could not possibly be driven. 

10. The uniform pressure exerted by the hydraulic jacks is a great advantage in 
safety and in convenience and speed over any system that relies upon the driving of 
the casing by a weight or ram. 

1 Slichter, C. S., Field measurements of the rate of movement of underground waters: U. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-Supply Paper 140, p. 101, 1905. 



30 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

11. The cost of construction is kept at a minimum by the limited amount of labor 
required to man the rig as well as by the good rate of progress possible in what would 
be considered in many places impossible material to drive in and by the cheap form 
of casing. 

The common type of casing for bored wells is made of galvanized 
sheet iron (soft steel) No. 20 to No. 14 gage, though any type of 
casing coming in short sections may be used. Sheet-iron casing is 
usually riveted into 2 or 3 foot lengths by the local tinsmith or the 
well borer. The upper part of each joint is spread a little and the 
lower part contracted so that the joints can be riveted together with 
a lap of 1 to 2 inches. To give greater strength a band or collar 3 to 
6 inches wide is sometimes used at each joint. It is then called "col- 
lared casing." Where it is desirable to exclude the upper water, the 
joints are soldered as the casing is put down, to make it water-tight. 
Perforations are made with a cold chisel or a machine punch in the 
flat — that is, before the flat sheets of metal are shaped and riveted 
into cylinders. For house wells 4 to 8 inches in diameter such casings 
have been very satisfactory. When inserted in gravel at a depth of 
25 to 100 feet, they frequently require no perforation to furnish water 
for a windmill or a small centrifugal pump. Some wells so equipped 
have been in continuous use for 30 to 40 years, but in general such 
wells should not be used over 15 to 20 years without recasing. The 
older wells are usually found to be full of tree roots, which may form 
such a mat as to clog the pipe. The presence of such vegetable mat- 
ter, with its consequent decay, is undesirable in drinking water, as it 
is liable to give the water a bad odor or taste and to induce disease. 

Single casings have not been so satisfactory in wells of larger 
diameters. In the weights ordinarily used sheet iron is not strong 
enough to stand the pressures which arise when obstacles are en- 
countered, especially if the casing has been weakened by perforation. 
The use of such casings in large wells intended for irrigation is too 
frequent and is responsible for many failures to obtain good irrigation 
supplies. Double slip-joint or heavy single iron, No. 12 to No. 8 
gage, should be used. The disadvantages of single sheet-metal cas- 
ings are as follows : 

1. Single No. 20 to No. 14 sheet iron or soft steel is too weak to 
stand the stresses and pressures likely to be developed in inserting a 
casing, particularly when no drive shoe or starter is used. 

2. The casing may buckle at any point, perhaps entailing the loss 
of the well, whereas a stovepipe casing will usually buckle at the 
top, where it is only a single thickness, thereby causing the loss of 
only the top joint. 

3. The caving that often accompanies heavy pumping is likely to 
crush single casing and thus ruin the well. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 81 
TYPES OF WELL SCREENS. 

Success or failure in well making is dependent largely on the 
method of handling the water-bearing beds. Variations in the 
depth, thickness, and coarseness of the beds are so great and the pos- 
sible combinations of these factors are so many that each well becomes 
a separate problem which must be solved on the ground. A descrip- 
tion of the ordinary methods in use in the valley, illustrated by ex- 
amples, together with a description of two screens not commonly 
used, is given in the following paragraphs. It is thought that this 
discussion will serve as a guide in meeting the conditions likely to be 
encountered in any particular well. 

The common method of making a screen is to perforate the cas- 
ing. It may be done before the casing is put down, but that practice 
is justified only when the depth and character of the water-bearing 
beds are known. In screw casings slots are cut with a chisel — two or 
three slots 2 feet long at each end of a 10 to 20 foot joint. Sheet- 
iron casings are frequently perforated in the flat with a hatchet or 
cold chisel and when riveted into pipe the burrs are turned outside. 
Slots are also cut out by machine punches, and by this process a 
larger number of holes can be cut. Casings are greatly weakened 
when perforated and are therefore liable to be crushed when inserted. 

Perforation of the casing after it is in place is a common practice. 
The size and position of the water-bearing beds are noted, and after 
the casing is inserted slots of a suitable size are cut by perforating 
machines. These machines are of various local patterns, but a com- 
mon form consists of a heavy frame that nearly fills the casing and 
is hung from the derrick by a rope or pipe line. A knife is pivoted 
in the frame and controlled by a second rope or pipe line. The 
machine is lowered to the desired place, and the slot is cut by pulling 
on the knife directly or by pulling the knife into position and stick- 
ing it through the casing by letting the full weight of the frame 
fall upon it. Skillful men working on wells that are not too deep 
can put from six to eight slots in a round, and one round every 6 
inches in red steel slip-joint casing. The shape of the slot is gov- 
erned by the shape of the knife, but very small slots are difficult to 
make, for a thin and consequently weak knife must be used. Slots 
three-eighths of an inch wide and 3 to 4 inches long are common 
and are suitable for the gravels ordinarily encountered. 

Specially constructed well screens may be inserted in the water- 
bearing beds. These are of various types, but where it is necessary 
to obtain large water supplies from sand the wire-wrapped screen 
best meets conditions for the deeper wells. This screen is made 
by boring numerous holes in a length of pipe and then wrapping it 
with wire. The wire is spaced at a uniform distance, which is de- 



32 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

pendent on the size of the sand grains. Originally round wires 
were used, but these have been abandoned for a triangular wire 
which forms a slot narrow on the outside and larger within. Thus 
any material which passes the slot goes clear in and does not clog the 
screen. The spacing of the wires may be varied from one-thousandth 
to one-eighth of an inch. The size of the sand grains must, however, 
be determined by a test well, and screens of suitable sizes and lengths 
must be placed in the casing as it is put down. When only the sand 
at the bottom of a well is to be drawn on, a screen made to handle 
that sand may be inserted below the casing, as in oil wells. Wire- 
wrapped screens are manufactured under several patents and vary 
in detail. The approximate price may be obtained from the accom- 
panying table extracted from a manufacturer's catalogue: 

Prices of wire-wrapped strainers. 



Diameter of 
pipe. 


Price per foot. 


Galvanized 
iron. 


Brass. 


Inches. 
5 


$2.75 
3.00 
3.65 
3.80 
4.00 
4.50 
5.00 
5.50 


$3.60 
4.40 
4.50 
5.70 
6.00 
6.50 
7.00 
7.50 


6or6J 

7f 


8or8J 

9f 


lOorlOf 

11| 


12J 





In the ordinary methods of screening wells the best results are 
obtained when the water-bearing bed is a mixture of coarse and 
fine material. The screen should allow the finer material to pass 
but hold back the coarser to form a natural screen about the well. 
Such a gravel screen can be obtained artificially by introducing 
gravel or crushed rock or tile into the hole. 1 A number of elaborate 
schemes have been devised for making an artificial gravel screen, 2 
but ordinary conditions may be met by relatively simple devices. 
A sheet-iron casing 16 to 26 inches in diameter may be sunk by 
ordinary well methods and a thoroughly perforated casing set inside 
of it. The perforations in this inner casing should be large and as 
numerous as possible without making the casing too weak. Selected 
gravel or crushed rock should then be poured between the casings, 
and the outer casing should be gradually lifted while the well is 
pumped. If the gravel settles, more gravel should be added at the top 
until a stable condition is reached, when the outside casing can be 
removed entirely. Wells of this type are successful in dealing 

1 Hall, C. W., Meinzer, O. E., and Fuller, M. L., Geology and underground waters of southern Minne- 
sota: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 256, p. 87, 1911. 

2 Maury, D. H., Open wells and turbine pumps: Eng. News, vol. 52, No. 7, pp. 138-140, Aug. 18, 1904. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 



33 



with sand near Enid, Okla. 1 Their cheapness and effectiveness 
recommend them for use in places where the clays are so soft that 
they will cave if the sand under them is pumped out and not replaced 
by some other material and where no beds of gravel can be found. 

EFFECTIVENESS OF WELL SCREENS IN SAND. 

Where hardpan or clay beds will support a roof the best method 
of obtaining water from sands is to pump them out and draw water 
from the resulting open cavity, but in soft material or where the 
beds of sand are very thick screens must be provided. The results 
of the methods in common use are not very satisfactory. The dif- 
ficulties are brought out in the account of L. F. Torry's well. 

The plant of L. F. Torry, south of College City, was visited October 
15, 1912. The well is 12 inches in diameter and more than 100 feet 
deep. It has a single galvanized-iron casing perforated in alternate 
2-foot joints with 50 to 60 fine slits cut in the flat with a cold chisel. 
The following is a partial log of the well: 

Partial log of L. F. Torry's well near College City, Cal. 



Thickness. 


Depth. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


34 


34 


2± 


36± 


20 


56 


4 


60 


2 


62 


6 


68 


2 


70 


10 


80 


12 


92 


4 


96 


2 


98 


1-2 





Soil and clay 

Sand and some gravel 

Not recorded, probably clay. 

Fine sand 

Clay 

Fine sand 

Coarse sand 

Clay 

Soft clay 

Clay 

Hardpan 

Sand 

Unknown below 



The equipment consists of a 3-inch horizontal centrifugal Goulds 
pump, set 10 feet below the surface in a 6 by 6 foot planked pit 11 
feet deep, and belted to an 8-horsepower Union gas engine. The 
depth to water, when the well was not being pumped, on October 15, 
1912, was 18.3 feet from the surface of the ground. After the pump 
had been run 10 minutes the depth to water inside the casing was 
35.7 feet, a drawdown of 17.4 feet. In boring the well the upper part 
of the hole was made more than 12 inches in diameter and thus there 
was a circular opening between the ground and the casing. The 
water level in this opening was 22.5 feet from the surface, and water 
was spraying through the perforations of the casing between this 
level and the level of the water inside the casing. These conditions 
are shown diagrammatically in figure 5. Under these conditions the 



1 Sclrwennesen, A. T., Ground water for irrigation in the vicinity of Enid, Okla.: IT. S. Geol. Survey 
Water-Supply Paper 345, p. 18, 1914. 



34 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

yield of the well could be increased by lowering the pump to 18 feet, 
the level of ground water, and thus increasing the head under which 
the waters enter the well. This would involve a larger lift for the 
pump and consequent greater cost of operation. By increasing the 
capacity of the strainer and admitting the water now being held out, 
more water could be obtained with the same lift. With the present 
type of casing the number or size of the holes can not be increased 
materially without weakening the casing or admitting so much sand 
as to cause the well to cave. A common plan is to sink a new well 
of the same type and connect it with the plant by a suction main. 



SURFACE OF GROUND 



Approximate trace of cone 
or depression ifmore m per- m 
forations were made in casing 




WOt ft- 



Figure 5.— Diagram of L. F. Torry's well near College City, Cal. 

The problem may also be solved by using a more efficient strainer 
of the wire-wrapped type or a lining of gravel around the well, as 
described on pages 31-33. The first cost of wells constructed by 
these methods will be higher, but wells so constructed will have a 
longer life than wells with the ordinary single sheet-iron casing. 



EFFECTIVENESS OF WELL SCREENS IN GRAVEL. 

Screens made by perforations of the single or double sheet-iron 
casings are more effective in gravels or in sands carrying a sufficient 
number of pebbles to form a gravel screen around the well. The 
following descriptions of the Morris and St. Louis plants will bring 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 35 

out the characteristics of these screens in dealing with the thick 
gravel beds near Cache Creek: 

The plant of Lindsay S. Morris, located 3 miles north of Yolo, is 
an example of good construction with single thickness casings. The 
plant consists of a 10-inch horizontal centrifugal Krogh pump belted 
to a 50-horsepower General Electric motor. The two wells are 12 
inches in diameter, 50 feet apart, and 103 and 98 feet deep. Gravel 
similar to that which occurs in the present bed of Cache is found 
between depths of 58 and 114 feet, and water is drawn from this 
gravel only, the sand in the upper 58 feet being cased off. The casing 
is single galvanized sheet iron perforated in the flat by a machine 
punch with 333 holes ^ by 1 inch to each 2-foot joint. Each well 
has 50 feet of perforated casing in the gravel. The bottoms of the 
wells are closed with cast cement plugs, each having eight holes 1| 
inches in diameter. The plugs were lowered into place by a bail 
and are designed to prevent the sucking in of gravels when pumping 
and yet admit sufficient water for the resulting current to prevent 
the accumulation of sand in the bottom of the well. The yield of 
the wells is estimated at 3,000 gallons a minute, or 1,500 gallons a 
minute each. In the season of 1913 the drawdown recorded by a 
vacuum gage was 27 inches of mercury, equivalent to 30.5 feet. 
Six-inch test wells were sunk 18 inches from each of the main wells, 
and on June 28, 1913, the depth to water in these wells was 24.5 
feet, measured from the center of the pump, with the vacuum gage 
at 27 inches as before. In other words, the water outside of the 
casings stood 6 feet higher than was indicated by the gage for the 
inside. If a head of 2 feet is allowed for friction in the suction pipe, 
the difference in level between the inside and outside of the well was 
4 feet. Further perforation of the casing to admit this water was 
impossible. Mr. Morris accordingly sank a 16-inch well with a 
similar casing between the other wells and 8 feet distant from a line 
connecting them. Water stood in this well, when only the other two 
were being pumped, 22.5 feet from the center of the pump, or 6 feet 
higher than the level of the other wells. This well is expected to 
reduce the lift and therefore the cost of pumping and to slightly 
increase the amount of water. 

The St. Louis plant of the Sacramento Valley Sugar Co., half a 
mile north of Yolo, will serve as an example of good well construction 
with stovepipe or double sheet-iron casing. The plant consists of 
12 wells set 30 feet apart in a north-south line. A 15-inch horizontal 
centrifugal Byron Jackson pump in a 10 by 12 foot cement pit, 17 
feet deep, belted to a 1 50-horsepower Westinghouse motor, is located 
at the center of the line of wells. The suction main lies in a series 
of tunnels connecting the pump pit with pits 4 feet square at each 
well. The suction pipes are 7f inches in inside diameter and are 



36 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OP UNITED STATES, 1915. 

connected to the suction pipe by a four-way union, which allows 
sand pumping of the wells without removal of the suction pipe. The 
diameter of the suction main increases from 7f inches at the ends to 
14 inches at the two sides of the pump. The plant discharges in 
two directions, east and west, to the banks of Cache Creek Slough, 
by riveted sheet-iron pipes. The east pipe is 18 inches in diameter 
and the west pipe 12 inches. The total lift is 42 feet, 15 feet dis- 
charge and 27 feet suction. The plant has a capacity estimated by 
C. E. Arnold, engineer for the company, at 7,000 gallons a minute. 

The wells range from 98 to 107 feet in depth and tap two 
water-bearing gravels. The upper gravel is from 6 to 8 feet thick; 
below it is 20 to 22 feet of clay and at the bottom 55 to 60 feet of 
gravel. The casing is No. 14 gage red steel slip-joint or stovepipe 
casing and extends within 1 foot of the bottom of the lower gravel, 
the wells being open at the bottom. The perforations were made 
after the casing was inserted and are triangular in shape, one-half 
inch wide at the top and tapering out in a length of 3 inches. The 
attempt was made to put eight holes in a round and one round every 
6 inches for the depth of the gravel. Tally of the holes actually cut 
gave the following results : 

Record of perforations of wells of the St. Louis plant, Sacramento Valley Sugar Co., north 

of Yolo, Cal. 



No. of well. 


Depth of 
well. 


Thickness 
of water- 
bearing 
gravel. 


Number of 
perfora- 
tions. 


No. of well. 


Depth of 
well. 


Thickness 
of water- 
bearing 
gravel. 


Number of 
perfora- 
tions. 


1 


Feet. 
99 
98 
98 
98 
101 
99 


Feet. 
69 
70 
71 
67 
71 
61 


896 
990 
941 
816 
"636 
768 


7 


Feet. 
99 
103 
104 
108 
109 
107 


Feet. 
61 
60 
60 
66 
69 
62 


760 


2 


8 


832 


3 


9 


800 


4 


10 


860 


5 


11 


864 


6 


12 


862 









a About 200 more were put in but not tallied. 

The perforating in these wells was done by competent workmen 
under good supervision, and the result may be taken as an example 
of the best strainer possible with casing of this type. The yield 
from each well is 583 gallons a minute. This compares unfavorably 
with the wells of the Morris plant, which yield about 1,500 gallons a 
minute each from gravels similar in size but in beds not quite so 
thick. 

The wells of these plants, although they conform to the best prac- 
tice characteristic of the valley, illustrate the faults common to 
many wells. Where a number of thin gravel beds occur the perfo- 
rated stovepipe casing will be effective because its perforations will 
admit all the water which the beds can transmit. In thick beds of 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 37 

gravel, however, perforations can. not be made in sufficient number 
to admit the water. This condition is illustrated by the difference 
in the yield per well of the Morris and St. Louis plants. Even the 
Morris wells do not have a great enough area exposed to the gravel. 
Sufficient perforations could be made in very heavy sheet-metal 
collared casing of No. 10 to No. 8 gage without reducing its strength 
and permanence below that of stovepipe casing. In shallow wells 
of large yield the velocities are so great that in order to prevent the 
rise of gravel in the well the bottom must be closed either by insert- 
ing the bottom of the casing in the underlying clay or, more effect- 
ively, by closing it with a plug, as in the Morris wells. 

PUMPING- PROBLEMS. 
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The selection of proper pumping machinery for irrigation is a 
combined agricultural and engineering problem. Primarily that 
machinery which will lift the desired water most economically is the 
best, but machinery varies in the care and attention it requires and 
in its adaptability to overload and underload, and the most efficient 
form is different with various capacities and lifts. The conditions of 
agricultural practice are thus brought into the problem, and this is 
particularly the case in an area like the Sacramento Valley, where 
most of the plants are installed for single ranches by their owners. 

AMOUNTS OF WATER. 

The amount of water required for the irrigation of a tract of a 
given size varies with the climate, soil, and crops. The amount of 
water used for each unit of land irrigated is called the duty of water 
and is usually expressed in feet or inches of depth of water applied, 
or in acre-feet or acre-inches to the acre. Wide variations in the 
duty of water are common, 1 but a safe figure for alfalfa on the " sedi- 
ment" land is 30 acre-inches or 2.5 acre-feet to the acre. 2 Tighter 
soils and orchard lands usually require less water. A duty of 2.5 
acre-feet is equivalent to a continuous flow of 0.00839 cubic foot a 
second, or 3.76 gallons a minute for 5 months of 30 days each. For 
continuous operation of a pumping plant it is necessary to have a 
reservoir of sufficient size to hold the water pumped at night. The 
expense of a reservoir and the trouble of continuous operation are at 
present justified only when the yield of wells is small or there is a 
large reduction in the cost of power if taken continuously. The 

1 Fortier, Samuel, Irrigation in the Sacramento Valley, Cal.: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Bull. 
207, 1909. 

2 Beckett, S. H., Progress report of cooperative irrigation experiments at California University Farm, 
Davis, Cal., 1909-1912: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 10, p. 7, Oct. 30, 1913. 



38 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

ordinary rancher does not expect to run his plant more than 20 days 
a month for 12 hours a day during the 5-month season, which would 
require a flow of 11.3 gallons a minute to furnish 2.5 acre-feet. Most 
small plants are probably in operation during an even smaller pro- 
portion of the time. At times of extreme heat the crop, particularly 
alfalfa, is likely to demand a quantity of water above normal, and it 
is therefore advantageous to have a margin of safety. The capacity 
should be large enough to provide water in such times of stress by 
pumping every day or possibly at night. 

A small head is not economical in irrigating porous soils because 
water seeps away rapidly in such soils, and a head of water large 
enough to get over the ground must be used. Near Dixon, where 
the soil is a characteristic west-side loam, 3-inch centrifugal pumps 
are the smallest used and 5 or 6 inch pumps are considered the 
smallest practicable for irrigating alfalfa. In the Winters district, 
however, in the basin irrigation of orchards planted on similar land, 
about 400 gallons a minute, the yield of a 4 or 5 inch pump, is as 
large an amount as can be handled, though plants of this capacity 
may irrigate 100 acres. Near Corning, where the soil is tight and 
runs together when wet, small heads of water give the best results, 
and many 10-acre tracts of orchard and alfalfa are being irrigated 
with 2-inch pumps. Conditions somewhat similar to those at Corning 
prevail over the east-side plains. 

In view of all these considerations a discharge of at least 12 gallons 
a minute to the acre should if possible be provided for alfalfa on 
ordinary loam soils in tracts of 40 to 200 acres, with larger capacities 
for smaller tracts and slightly smaller capacities for larger tracts. 

In many places the problem is reversed and it is necessary to pro- 
vide suitable equipment for wells of a known capacity and lift. 
After wells are sunk and tested, this is the problem to be solved, 
although in most localities in the Sacramento Valley it is possible to 
develop, through a series of wells, any desired capacity. The limiting 
factor is generally the cost, and in those localities where only small 
supplies are obtained by ordinary methods and with reasonable ex- 
penditure, such crops should be grown as require a minimum of 
water, and that in small heads. 

FORMS OF PUMPS. 

The centrifugal pump, because of its adaptability and ease of 
operation, has long been a favorite with irrigators. Modern practice 
in designing has increased the efficiency of these pumps, and except 
for extremely high lifts they are without question superior to dis- 
placement pumps for irrigation. The air lift is a device suitable for 
pumping from deep wells where power is furnished as a by-product 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 39 

of a larger plant and where constant expert attendance is available. 
The mechanical efficiency of the air lift is not high, and the method 
is not suitable for isolated plants that are run discontinuously. 
Because the air lift is very effective in cleaning the sand from a well 
and developing it to maximum capacity, it is useful in cleaning and 
testing new wells and has been so used by several large development 
companies. 

A centrifugal pump consists of a set of vanes mounted on a shaft 
and inclosed in a pump case. When the shaft is rotated the water, 
which is admitted at the base of the vanes along the shaft, is given 
a radial motion and, as it is confined by the pump case, this motion is 
converted into pressure and lateral motion or discharge. Loss of the 
power applied to the shaft occurs through friction of water against 
the vanes and pump case, in eddies and swirls, and by the internal 
friction of the water. The different designs attempt to overcome 
these losses with a minimum cost. 

A pump in which the water after leaving the vanes is directed by 
curved plates set in the pump case is known as a turbine. These 
pumps ordinarily develop the best efficiency and are capable of 
operating against high heads. They are used principally for hard, 
continuous service or as fire-pressure pumps. 

The ordinary centrifugal pump is built without diffusion vanes 
and has a volute case which increases in size spirally toward the 
discharge and looks very much like a snail shell. Within the case 
revolve the vanes connected in a casting called the impeller. In a 
pump of the " open-runner 7; type the vanes are in direct contact with 
the case and water slippage is prevented only by matching of the vanes 
and case. A pump of the " closed-runner " type has plates cast or 
bolted to the vanes, and these plates are the only part of the impeller 
in contact with the pump case. Water is admitted through ports at 
the hub and does not come into contact with the case except at the 
top of the impeller. When there is much sand and grit in the water, 
as is common in wells, all exposed surfaces are liable to wear, which 
may considerably decrease the efficiency of the pump. Certain 
models are provided with renewable rings, which may be adjusted 
against the impeller and thus provide for wear. 

A pump set on a horizontal shaft is called a horizontal centrifugal 
pump. Because of the difference in pressure between the suction 
and discharge of the pump the impeller tends to move toward the 
suction side. This is called end thrust and is taken care of by a 
friction bearing, by a water-balance device, or by admitting water 
on both sides of the impeller, as in double-suction pumps. The 
horizontal is the standard form of centrifugal pump and should be 
used wherever practicable. In pumping from wells or in other posi- 
tions requiring a deep pit, a vertical centrifugal pump is sometimes 



40 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

used. This pump, with its vertical drive shaft, has the advantage that 
a short belt or direct drive can be used on the surface and power 
transmitted by the shaft. The pump will operate under water, and 
this is convenient where large fluctuations of the water table are 
likely to occur. The weight of the shaft and the end thrust must be 
supported by bearings, and friction losses from this cause decrease 
the efficiency of these installations. Top suction and a water-balance 
device afford some relief from end thrust. These pumps should not 
be used except to avoid long belts in places where the depth to water 
is more than 40 feet. Even for depths greater than 40 feet the direct- 
connected centrifugal pump or deep-well turbine should be given 
consideration. 

Where electric power is available centrifugal pumps are often 
connected directly to the motor. The horizontal pump is usually 
built on an extended cast-iron base and the shaft is connected by a 
flexible leather-link coupling to the shaft of a motor set on the same 
base. A considerable saving in power is effected by discarding a 
belt, but as motors have a fixed speed depending on their make, their 
horsepower, and the kind of current used, each unit, whether a ver- 
tical or a horizontal pump, must be separately designed to fit- the 
conditions under which it is to work. The manufacturers on being 
furnished with complete information will design a direct-connected 
unit and guarantee a given discharge and efficiency. ■ 

In a form of centrifugal pump that has recently come into use the 
shafting is inclosed in the discharge pipe and the impeller in a series 
of small bowls, so that the whole apparatus will fit inside a well 
casing. As the impellers are small a number of bowls or stages are 
usually provided — one to each 20 or 30 feet of lift. Diffusion vanes 
guide the water from one impeller chamber to the next, so that this 
pump is of the turbine type. It is usually called the turbine cen- 
trifugal or deep-well centrifugal. The pump is supported at the 
ground and hangs free in the well. Power is applied at the surface 
by a quarter-turn belt to a pulley on the shaft or directly by a vertical 
electric motor. These pumps are built in sizes from 9f to 24 inches 
in diameter. With larger sizes a special circular steel pit to hold the 
pump is sunk by ordinary well methods around the well. The pit 
should be securely fastened to the top of the well casing. As the 
number of impellers can be easily increased, high heads can be handled, 
and the pump is proving very popular where water is deep. These 
pumps are also effective in obtaining maximum yields from poor 
wells. This is accomplished by setting the pump far below water 
level and pumping the water down more than is possible with the 
horizontal centrifugal pumps. This excessive lowering of the water 
level, however, causes a high lift and a heavy cost for power. Tur- 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 



41 



bine centrifugal pumps take up but little room, are usually set so as 
not to require priming, are oiled from the surface, and require only 
a cheap pit which is covered and not dangerous to men and animals. 
However, a permanent derrick should be maintained over the pump, 
because for repairs or inspection the whole apparatus must be removed 
from the well. 

SIZES AND COST OF PUMPS. 

Centrifugal pumps are rated according to the size of the discharge 
openings in inches and are spoken of as 4-inch, 6-inch, etc., or No. 4, 
No. 6, etc. These sizes or numbers give but a general idea of the 
capacity of the pumps, for the capacity varies with the head, with 
the speed at which the pump runs, and with the design of the impeller. 
The variation in capacity with speed and head makes it difficult to 
compare different manufacturers' designs. Normal capacity is usually 
figured for a 40-foot lift, and, of course, the maximum efficiency is 
obtained under the conditions for which the pump is designed. The 
lift may be varied either way 20 to 50 per cent, with a resulting loss 
in efficiency dependent in amount on the form of the impeller. The 
smaller sizes run at higher speeds than the large sizes and the same 
pumps must be run at a higher speed for greater heads. The large 
pump manufacturers maintain engineering departments whose serv- 
ices are available to customers, and consultation with them would 
avoid many of the common mistakes in installation. 

The following table is taken from the catalogue of a well-known 
manufacturer and gives the capacities and characteristics of hori- 
zontal centrifugal pumps : 

Size, capacity, and horsepower of single-stage belt-driven centrifugal pumps. 



No. of pump (size of discharge and suction open- 
ings in inches) . 




Normal 


capacity 






at 40 feet total 
head. 


Theoreti- 
cal horse- 


mended 






power for 
each foot 
of lift at 
normal 
capacity. 


power for 
each foot 
of lift at 
normal 

capacity. 


.Gallons 

a 
minute. 


Second- 
feet. 


10 
20 


0.02 
.04 






6.006 


0.02 


50 


.1 


.013 


.04 


100 


.2 


.025 


.06 


150 


.3 


.038 


.085 


225 


.5 


.057 


.114 


300 


.6 


.08 


.16 


400 


.9 


.10 


.20 


700 


1.5 


.17 


.34 


900 


2.0 


.23 


.39 


1,200 


2.6 


.31 


.50 


1,600 


3.5 


.41 


.67 


3,000 


6.6 


.76 


1.17 


4,500 


10.0 


1.13 


1.75 



Price. 



$25 
45 
55 
70 
85 
100 
115 
125 
150 
200 
250 
300 
400 
500 



42 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OP UNITED STATES, 1915. 
EFFICIENCY OF PUMPS. 

Manufacturers' tests of efficiency and capacity, as reported in the 
trade catalogues, frequently give results that can not be attained 
in actual practice. As a rule this is due not to any attempt by the 
manufacturers to deceive, but to the fact that the pumps are tested 
at the factory under favorable conditions that are not attained in 
most installations. The most important of these favorable condi- 
tions is a small suction lift. Throughout the valley suction lifts 
greater than those recommended by manufacturers are common, 
and it is a regular practice to increase the speed of the pump until 
the maximum suction lift, about 28 feet, results. This custom is 
justified during a dry season when crops demand water and the 
yield of the well is decreasing, but it should be practiced only in 
emergencies. It is more profitable in the long run to increase the 
supply of water by sinking more wells. It is ordinarily considered 
that with a centrifugal pump more than a 20-foot suction lift should 
not be attempted. However, high suction lifts are difficult to 
avoid where there are large fluctuations in the water table if hori- 
zontal centrifugal pumps, which must be kept above water, are 
used. Thus, if the pump is installed just above the water level in 
March of a wet year it will be far above the water level in August of 
a dry year, and high suction lifts will be unavoidable unless suitable 
arrangements are made to lower the pump. 

Adjustments to retain the efficiency and capacity of the plant with 
the changing lifts due to fluctuations of the water table can be made 
only after the extent of these fluctuations for the locality is known. 
If the pump is belted to the engine or motor its capacity can be 
adjusted to the lift by varying the pump speed. Two sets of pulleys, 
one for use in the spring, when the lift is low, and the other for use 
late in the summer, when the lift is high, should be provided. Direct- 
connected outfits have a constant speed and the only means of adjust- 
ing them is to provide two impellers, one for the low lift and the 
other for the high lift. The saving in power that will result from 
such adjustments, which should be made only after consultation 
with the pump manufacturers, will amply repay the cost. 

INSTALLATION OF PUMPING PLANTS. 

After the completion of wells rough pits temporarily planked up 
are sufficient for testing, but when the size and type of pump are 
decided on a permanent pit of concrete should be built. The bot- 
tom of this pit should be at water level during the summer season, 
so that the pump may be set as close as possible to the water. The 
other dimensions of the pit depend on the size of the pump and 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 43 

whether it is belted or direct-connected. The pit should be care- 
fully designed so as to afford working room around the pump and 
yet have no waste space. Dimension plates are published by all 
pump manufacturers, and from these the room required by the 
pump can be obtained. The pit may be either rectangular or circu- 
lar, the circular form being slightly stronger but harder to con- 
struct. A 6-inch concrete wall without reinforcement is sufficiently 
strong for ordinary pits 10 to 20 feet deep. Reinforcement with 
woven wire or steel rods should be used in the shoulders of an inclined 
beltway, or the pressure of the soil will cause a failure of the wall at 
this point. 

Bolts or timbers should be let into the side walls to facilitate the 
building of a stage on which to set the pump for pumping early in 
the spring when the pit is flooded. Another method is to make 
the concrete water-tight and seal the well around the suction pipe. 
This involves considerable expense and trouble and is not always 
successful. In installing direct-connected outfits means should 
always be provided for lifting the motor 
out of the pit during the winter. 

When two or more wells are connected 
to a pump, a small pit should be con- 
structed around each well. Except where 

Sand OCCUrS at Water level, the cheapest FlGURE S.-Dimensions of enlargement 
. „ . _ . . of discharge and suction pipes. 

method 01 connecting the several pits is 

by tunneling from one to the other. The tunnel should be sup- 
ported by timber or concrete. 

Large pipes should be used throughout, and in order to avoid 
excessive losses from friction large-angle elbows should be used. 
Loss of head due to friction on entrance to the suction pipe and 
exit from the discharge pipe may be avoided by enlarging these 
openings. (See fig. 6.) The enlargement should not be abrupt 
but gradual. The following rule is given by Gregory: 1 The diameter 
of the end should be If times that of the pipe, and the enlargement 
should begin at a distance from the end 2\ times the diameter. The 
discharge pipe should lead to the bottom of a cement trough of 
large size. The trough should lead to the ditch without any drop 
or waste head. Probably 50 per cent of the existing plants pump 
water from 1 foot to 6 feet higher than is necessary. 

A suitable house should be built over the plant to protect it from 
the weather. This should be done the first season, for a few grains 
of sand or a little rust may do irreparable damage. 

1 Gregory, W. B., The selection and installation of machinery for small pumping plants: U. S. Dept. 
Agr. Office Exper. Sta. Circ. 101, 1910, p. 19. 




44 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 



DISTRIBUTING SYSTEMS. 

Only a few of the plants in the valley have an adequate system of 
distribution. Crude earthen ditches are sufficient in tight soils, but 
in the loams of the west side and the river bottoms the loss by seepage 
in such ditches is great, and most of the Water that is lost percolates 
downward and is of no value to the crop. The relatively tight soil 
of the Richfield tract, north of Corning, showed a loss of 17 per cent 
to the mile with a stream of 1,100 gallons a minute. In loam soils 
the loss often amounts to as much as 20 per cent in half a mile. 

The use of cement pipe will prevent these losses and also bring 
about a saving of land and a reduction in the cost of irrigation. A 
comprehensive account of the manufacture and cost of cement pipe 
in southern California is given by Tait, 1 from whose paper the follow- 
ing table of costs is taken: 

Cost of cement pipe at Pomona, Cal. 



Size. 


Cost per 
foot. 


Cost per 
foot laid. 


Inches. 

8 

10 

12 

16 


SO. 12J 
.16 
.22 
.35 


$0.17 
.22 
.32 
.50 



The cost of pipe in the Sacramento Valley, based on work done for 
the Mills Orchard Co., at Hamilton, is given by Mills 2 as follows: 

Cost of concrete pipe in Sacramento Valley. 



Size. 


Cost per 
foot. 


Size. 


Cost per 
foot. 


Inches. 
8 
10 
12 

16 


SO. 28 
.35 
.43 
.56 


Inches. 

18 

24 

30 

36 


$0.65 

.84 

1.10 

1.55 



These prices are for " wet-tamp" pipe, 1 part cement to 4 parts 
"gravel," the latter being the natural mixture found in streams, about 
2 parts sand and 2 parts gravel. These estimates are based on cement 
at $2.50 a barrel and gravel at 15 cents a cubic yard, both delivered at 
the pipe yard, and also allow for hauling the pipe from the pipe yard, 
an average distance of 1 mile. The cost of laying pipe is included, 
but not the cost of overflows, standpipes, valves, etc. 

i Tait, C E., The use of underground water for irrigation at Pomona, Cal.: U. S. Dept. Agr. Office Exper. 
Sta. Bull. 236, pp. 56-60, 80-83, 1912. 

2 Mills, E. C, Concrete pipe and overflow basins for distributing irrigation water: Eng. Record, vol. 67, 
No. 24, p. 652, June 7, 1913. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 45 

It is believed that these costs will be reduced as the demand for pipe 
increases. Certainly it should be possible to manufacture pipe as 
cheaply in the Sacramento Valley as in southern California. It is re- 
ported that some contractors are ready at the present time to make a 
price of 35 cents a foot for 12-inch pipe. 

John Borgman, a rancher near Nicolaus, says that 2,000 feet of 12- 
inch pipe on his ranch cost less than 25 cents a foot. This pipe was 
laid continuously in a trench by the use of a form consisting of a 4-foot 
length of 12-inch galvanized pipe fitted with a handle in one end. 
The trench was carefully shaped, rounded on the bottom, and 15 
inches wide. A layer of concrete 1 J inches thick was put in the bot- 
tom of the trench and the form was laid on top and covered with 
strips of burlap. Wires 14 inches long were bent over the form and 
thrust into the concrete on both sides. Concrete was then laid over 
the form for a depth of 2 inches. As soon as the next 4-foot bed of 
concrete was ready the form was slipped out and forward. The bur- 
lap strips allowed the form to slip out, and the wire reinforcement was 
sufficient to hold up the arch. Mr. Borgman and his son, after they 
became skillful, laid from 80 to 90 feet of pipe a day. The occasional 
leaks were not serious, but it was found that a mixture of 1 part ce- 
ment, 2 parts sand, and 2 parts gravel was necessary to prevent seep- 
age through the walls. Although pipe cast in molds is preferable for 
strength and adaptability and has the advantage that it can be easily 
inspected for defects, it is thought that the method devised by Mr. 
Borgman, with such simple adaptations as will occur to the irrigator, 
will enable men of small capital to equip their ranches with an effec- 
tive pipe system. 

IRRIGATION WITH WELL WATER. 

Progress in irrigation has been rapid in the Sacramento Valley 
within the last few years, the principal development being in private 
irrigation plants using ground water. Most of the plants are situated 
in groups around the towns, partly because of economic reasons and 
partly because irrigation is infectious and the installation of one plant 
makes converts among the neighbors. 

Statistics of irrigation were collected in the summer and fall of 1912 
for the region west of Sacramento Kiver between Willows andEio 
Vista, and in the summer and fall of 1913 for the rest of the valley 
except Sacramento County. By correspondence and a short trip in 
1913 the west-side material was brought up to date, so that the figures 
in the accompanying table represent conditions in 1913. Two short 
trips into Sacramento County were made by the writer in 1913 and 
1914. In the winter of 1914 J. W. Muller, of the Geological Survey, 
spent two months collecting statistics of pumping. The figures for 



46 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 



the Sacramento area and the southern part of the Bear-American 
River area are the result of his work and cover the season of 1914. 

An attempt was made to visit each pumping plant and to deter- 
mine the area actually irrigated. Some difficulty was found in deter- 
mining what should be considered a pumping plant for irrigation. 
In many places there are plants with 2-inch pumps and 5-horsepower 
engines used to obtain water for stock and domestic purposes and for 
watering lawns and house gardens which were not considered as 
irrigation plants, but plants of the same size near Corning that are 
used for irrigating commercial orchards were listed as irrigation plants, 
though they are also used for domestic purposes. In the Sacramento 
area the combined suburban home and small farm is so common that 
practically all plants are listed. Irrigation was credited to a plant 
only where there was local evidence of irrigation at the time the plant 
was visited or where information that the plant was so used was 
deemed reliable. Proposed irrigation was rigidly excluded from the 
statistics. 

The installed plants and acreage irrigated in 1913 (Sacramento 
County figures are for 1914) are presented in the following table, which 
is subject to minor revision. In this table the valley is divided into 
19 areas in which pumping is concentrated in groups. These areas, 
the boundaries of which are arbitrary, are shown on the map of the 
valley (PL II). 

Statistics of ground-water irrigation in the Sacramento Valley for 1913. 



Area. 
(See PI. II.) 


Num- 
ber of 
plants. 


Num- 
ber of 
owners. 


Area 
irri- 
gated. 


Nomi- 
nal 
electric 
power. 


Nomi- 
nal 
gaso- 
line, 
oil, and 
steam 
power. 


All 
power. 


Aver- 
age 

power 
per 

plant. 


Aver- 
age area 
irri- 
gated 
for each 
plant. 


Aver- 
age area 
irri- 
gated 
for each 
horse- 
power. 


Red Bluff-Tehama 


25 
16 

7 

5 
23 
167 

22 
81 
84 
14 
67 
15 
14 
7 

37 
10 

128 
3 

939 


8 
15 
5 

5 
23 

126 
19 
77 
66 
11 
46 
13 
14 
7 

26 
10 

111 
3 

837 


Acres. 

1,387 

1,345 

470 

115 

370 

4,144 

607 

1,450 

1,780 

1,405 

2,431 

280 

529 

70 

7,988 

148 

5,696 

19 

10,625 


Horse- 
power. 
297 
375 
45 

105 
150 
1,106 
175 
129 
483 
160 
575 
100 
165 

1,812 
25 

1,302 
20 

3,661 


Horse- 
power. 
30 
34 
30 

15 

39 
195 

52 
530 

73 

45 
122 

63 
139 

28 
140 

60 

529 

4 

2,329 


Horse- 
power. 
327 
409 
75 

120 
189 

1,301 
227 
659 
556 
205 
697 
163 
304 
28 

1,952 
85 

1,831 
24 

5,990 


Horse- 
power. 
13.0 
25.5 
10.6 

24.0 

8.2 
7.7 
10.3 
8.1 
6 6 
14.6 
10.4 
10.8 
21.7 
4.0 
52.7 
8.5 
14.3 
8.0 
6.3 


Acres. 
55.4 
84.0 
68.2 

23.0 
16.1 
24.8 
27.5 
17.9 
20.2 

100.3 
36.2 
18.6 
37.7 
10.0 

215.8 

14.8 

44.5 

6.3 

11.3 


Acres. 
4.2 


Chieo 


3.3 


Butte City 


6.2 


Gridley and Marysville 
Buttes 


.9 


Oroville-Marysville . . . 


1.9 


East Sutter Basin. . . 


3.2 


Yuba-Bear River 


2.6 


Bear-American River a 

Corning 


2.2 
3.2 


Hamilton-Orland 


6.8 


Willows 


3.5 


Williams 


1.7 


Colusa-Meridian 


1.7 


Arbuckle 


2.5 


Woodland 


4.1 




1.7 


Davis-Winters-Dixon 

Rio Vista 


3.1 

.8 


Sacramento b 


1.7 








1,664 


1,422 


40,859 


10, 685 


4,457 


15, 142 


9.1 


24.5 


2.7 



a Collected in part by J. W. Muller in 1914. 
b Collected by J. W. Muller in 1914. 



GROUND WATER IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 47 

Of the total horsepower used 70 per cent is electric; the rest is 
developed by internal-combustion engines and by a few steam engines 
in old plants. High-tension electric-power lines of several different 
companies cross the valley to the bay cities from water-power plants 
located in the Sierra Nevada. Local power lines at lower voltage run 
out through the country from numerous transformer stations on the 
main lines. Those areas in which the power produced by gasoline, 
oil, and steam engines equals or exceeds the electric power have 
scattered plants, many of which are far from power lines. The large 
use of gasoline power in the Davis- Winters-Dixon area is due partly 
to the fact that a number of plants were installed before electric 
power was available and partly to a belief that gasoline plants are 
cheaper. 

The average horsepower to a plant is 9.1, and the average area 
irrigated 24.5 acres, or 2.7 acres for each horsepower used. Wide 
variations in the size of the plants and the acreage per horsepower 
exist in the several districts. They are not due primarily to differences 
in lift, for the lifts do not vary much from one district to the other, 
but to differences in soil and crops and in the size of farm units. The 
Butte City and Hamilton-Orland areas have a large acreage per 
horsepower because of the economical irrigation of young orchards 
by large companies. The East Sutter Basin area is also predomi- 
nantly an orchard district, but the plants supply small tracts because 
the land is in small blocks and each owner irrigates only his own land. 
Relatively large heads of water are, however, required in this area to 
cover the ground, and therefore small plants are not practicable. 
Economy could be effected by cooperation between neighbors. The 
use of one plant by several ranchers would reduce the interest and 
depreciation charges, which form so large a part of the cost of pumped 
water. 

The average irrigation in all areas is brought down by the inclusion 
of plants recently installed, which irrigated only small tracts in the 
following year. An effort should be made when a new plant is 
installed to complete the grading and checking of the land so that the 
plants can be brought into full use without undue loss of time. 

The machinery installed in the pumping plants of the valley is 
capable of a certain amount of work, which can be estimated for 
assumed conditions and compared to the actual results in acreage 
irrigated. While no large series of tests have been made, it may be 
assumed that the plants have an over-all efficiency of 40 per cent — 
that is, that 40 per cent of the nominal horsepower of the motors and 
engines is actually effective in lifting water. This figure is assumed 
on the ground that the large number of direct-connected electric 
units of high efficiency will balance the plants of low efficiency. The 



48 CONTRIBUTIONS TO HYDROLOGY OF UNITED STATES, 1915. 

average lift may be taken at 40 feet, which is perhaps a high rather 
than a low figure. 

The average of 9 horsepower to the plant, as given in the table 
(p. 46), with a plant efficiency of 40 per cent and a lift of 40 feet, will 
deliver 358 gallons a minute. On page 38 it is stated that the time 
a plant ordinarily runs is 12 hours a day and 20 days a month for 5 
months. With this pumping time 11.3 gallons a minute is necessary 
to furnish 2.5 acre-feet an acre for the season, which is nearly the 
right figure for alfalfa, though much too high for orchards. This 
pumping time is based on five irrigations of 6 inches each, which is 
common on alfalfa. However, the irrigations are not always evenly 
divided, the third and fourth irrigations often being much heavier 
than the others. A discharge of 11.3 gallons a minute to the acre will 
allow 7-J inches to be applied in 28 days' pumping, 12 hours a day. 
Heavier irrigations are seldom necessary but can be provided by night 
pumping. The time required for one irrigation can also be reduced 
by operating the plant for a longer time each day. The necessity 
which may arise at certain times for large applications of water and 
for getting a field irrigated quickly in order to keep the crop growing 
justifies large installations. The intelligent irrigator will, however, 
attempt to reduce the peak load on his irrigation plant by adjustments 
of his system of agriculture in order to use as small a plant as is 
possible. 

At 11.3 gallons a minute to the acre a discharge of 358 gallons a 
minute (from a 9-horsepower plant) for 12 hours a day will irrigate 
31.6 acres with 2.5 feet of water for the season. By increasing the 
pumping time to 16 hours a day for the 100-day season, the same 
discharge will irrigate 42.3 acres with the same amount of water. 
With this increased pumping time and a reduction in the amount of 
water applied from 2.5 feet to 2 feet the same plant will supply 52.8 
acres. 

While 24.5 acres, the average acreage to the plant derived from the 
statistics (p. 46), is a rough figure and includes many different kinds 
of plants pumping on different kinds of crops, it is so near the figure, 
31.6 acres, obtained by assuming the conditions stated above in full 
that it indicates either that the valley plants are fairly efficient and 
well used or that the assumptions do not represent average conditions 
as to lift and duty of water. It will be seen from the following analysis 
that the assumptions are good for an average plant irrigating field 
crops. Many plants have low lifts or irrigate orchards and do not 
comply with the assumptions. In irrigating porous soils a discharge 
as small as 358 gallons a minute is easily lost by seepage and will 
not irrigate as much land as the figures call for. The large increase 
in acreage with increased running time is exceedingly significant. 
Analysis shows that the average area irrigated by each plant can be 



GROUND WATER. IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY, CAL. 49 

raised when through a keener realization of the saving effected each 
owner obtains for his plant the best mechanical efficiency and fullest 
economical use. 

It is believed that the assumption for lift of 40 feet is about the 
average for the valley, but that, although 2.5 feet is the proper amount 
of water to use on alfalfa and is used in good practice in Dixon and 
other places, much less water is usually applied in good practice to 
orchards. The average use of water is therefore less than 2.5 feet. 
If the assumption of 2.5 feet for duty of water is too high, then it is 
evident that the acreage irrigated is too small and should be increased. 

An increase of pumping time by 4 hours a day will increase the 
average acreage for each plant to 42.3 acres, and at many plants this 
increase, with the consequent reduction in cost to the acre for irriga- 
tion, can easily be made. The assumption of a 40 per cent over-all 
efficiency of the plants may be too high, but this is a minimum 
standard to which irrigators should try to bring the mechanical 
efficiency of their plants. It is usually exceeded in direct-connected 
electric units. Improvements in efficiency of many plants can be 
made by slight, inexpensive changes, such as enlargement of discharge 
pipes, elimination of unnecessary elbows, reduction of discharge 
height to that just necessary to put water in the ditch, and other de- 
vices which are illustrated by the numerous plants of high efficiency 
to be found in any pumping district. It is obvious that the irrigators 
have an opportunity to make much greater use of their present aggre- 
gate investment in wells and pumping machinery. 

o 



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